Community-acquired pneumonia: An overview

Postgraduate Medicine

Volumn 127, Issue 6, 2015, Pages 607-615

  Mandell, Lionel A ^a  

^a MCMASTER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Adjunctive therapy; Community acquired pneumonia; Guidelines; Pneumococcus; Site of care; Vaccines

Indexed keywords

C REACTIVE PROTEIN; MACROLIDE; PROCALCITONIN; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIVIRUS AGENT;

ANTIBIOTIC SENSITIVITY; ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; ARTICLE; ASPLENIA; CHLAMYDIA PNEUMONIAE; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; DIAGNOSTIC ERROR; HAEMOPHILUS; HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE; HUMAN; HYPOXEMIA; IMMUNOMODULATION; MIXED INFECTION; MYCOPLASMA PNEUMONIAE; NONHUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PNEUMONIA SEVERITY INDEX; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RISK FACTOR; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; URINALYSIS; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED INFECTION; PNEUMONIA;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ANTIVIRAL AGENTS; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; HUMANS; PNEUMONIA;

EID: 84944152654     PISSN: 00325481     EISSN: 19419260     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00325481.2015.1074030     Document Type: Article

References (83)

1. Kollef MH, Shorr A, Tabak YP, Gupta V, Liyu LZ, Johannes RS. Epidemiology and outcomes of healthcare-associated pneumonia: results from a large US database of culture-positive pneumonia. Chest 2005;128:3854–62.
2. American Thoracic Society, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for the management of adults with hospitalacquired, ventilator-associated, and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005;171:388.
3. Ewig S, Welte T, Chastre J, Torres A. Rethinking the concepts of community-acquired pneumonia and healthcare-associated pneumonia. Lancet Infec Dis 2010;10:279–87.
4. Chalmers JD, Rother C, Salih W, Ewig S. Healthcare-associated pneumonia does not accurately identify potentially resistant pathogens: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis 2014;58:330–9.
5. File TM, Marrie TJ. Burden of community-acquired pneumonia in North American adults. Prostgrad Med 2010;122:130.
6. Marrie TJ, Huang JQ. Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in Edmonton, Alberta: an emergency department-based study. Can Respir J 2005;12:139.
7. Lim WS, Baudouin SV, George RC, Hill AT, Jamieson C, Le Jeune I, et al. BTS guidelines for the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: update 2009. Thorax 2009;64:iii1–55.
8. Mandell LA, Wunderink RC, Anzueto A, Bartlett JG, Campbell GD, Dean NC, et al. Infectious diseases society of America/ American Thoracic Society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2007;44:S27–72.
9. Marrie T. Epidemiology, pathogenesis, and microbiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Available from www. uptodate.com. Last accessed 23 October 2014.
10. Johansson N, Kalin M, Tiveljung-Lindell A, Giske CG, Hedlund J. Etiology of community-acquired pneumonia: increased microbiological yield with new diagnostic methods. Clin Infect Dis 2010;50:220.
11. Lieberman D, Shimoni A, Shemer-Avni Y, Keren-Naos A, Shtainberg R, Lieberman D. Respiratory viruses in adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 2010;138:811.
12. Jartti T, Jartti L, Peltola V, Waris M, Ruuskanen O. Identification of respiratory viruses in asymptomatic subjects: asymptomatic respiratory viral infections. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2008;27:1103.
13. Wunderink RG, Waterer GW. Community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2014;370:543–51.
14. Pavia AT. What is the role of respiratory viruses in communityacquired pneumonia?: What is the best therapy for influenza and other viral causes of community-acquired pneumonia? Infect Dis Clin North Am 2013;27:157–75.
15. Torres A, Peetermans WE, Viegi G, Blasi F. Risk factors for community-acquired pneumonia in adults in Europe: a literature review. Thorax 2013;68:1057–65.
16. Remington LT, Sligl W. Community-acquired pneumonia. Curr Opin Pulm Med 2014;20:215–24.
17. Kaplan V, Clermont G, Griffin MF, Kasal J, Watson RS, Linde-Zwirble WT, Angus DC. Pneumonia: still the old man’s friend? Arch Intern Med 2003;163:317–23.
18. Musher DM, Rueda AM, Kaka AS, Mapara SM. The association between pneumococcal pneumonia and acute cardiac events. Clin Infect Dis 2007;45:158–65.
19. Reynolds HY. Pulmonary host defenses. Chest 1989;95:2235–305.
20. Mason RJ, Greene K, Voelker DR. Surfactant protein A and surfactant protein D in health and disease. Am J Physiol 1998;275:L1–13.
21. Lawson PR, Reid KB. The roles of surfactant proteins A and D innate immunity. Immunol Rev 2000;173:66–78.
22. Donowitz GR. Acute Pneumonia. In Bennet D, editor. Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th Edition. Churchill Livingstone Elsevier; 2010. 64;891–916.
23. Chaudhuri N, Whyte M, Sabroe I. Reducing the toll of inflammatory lung disease. Chest 2007;131:1550–6.
24. Sligl WI, Marrie TJ. Severe community-acquired pneumonia. Crit Care Clin 2013;29:563–601.
25. Waterer GW, Kessler LA, Wunderink RG. Delayed administration of antibiotics and atypical presentation in community-acquired pneumonia. Chest 2006;130:11–15.
26. Metlay JP, Kapoor WN, Fine MJ. Does this patient have community-acquired pneumonia? Diagnosing pneumonia by history and physical examination. JAMA 1997;278:1440.
27. Metlay JP, Fine MJ. Testing strategies in the initial management of patients with community-acquired pneumonia. Ann Intern Med 2003;138:109.
28. Gilbert D, Spellberg Bartlett JG. Recommendations for diagnostic studies in respiratory tract infections (position paper of the Infectious Diseases Society of America). Clin Infect Dis 2010.
29. Bartlett JG. Diagnostic tests for agents of community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infec Dis 2011;52:S296.
30. Bartlett JG. Diagnostic approach to community-acquired pneumonia in adults. Available from www.uptodate.com.
31. Musher DM, McKenzie SO. Infections due to Staphylococcus aureus. Medicine 1977;56:383–409.
32. Sorde R, Falco V, Lowak M. Usefulness of pneumococcal urinary antigen detection in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia to guide antimicrobial therapy. Arch Intern Med 2011;171:166.
33. Yu VL, Plouffe JF, Pastoris MC, Stout JE, Schousboe M, Widmer A, et al. Distribution of Legionella species and serogroups isolated by culture in patients with sporadic community-acquired legionellosis: an international collaborative survey. J Infect Dis 2002;186:127.
34. Poritz MA, Blaschke AJ, Byington CL, Meyers L, Nilsson K, Jones DE, et al. FilmArray, an automated nested multiplex PCR system for multi-pathogen detection: development and application to respiratory tract infection. PLoS One 2011;6:e26047.
35. Chartrand C, Leeflang MM, Minion J, Brewer T, Pai M. Accuracy of rapid influenza diagnostic tests: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med 2012;156:500–11.
36. Christ-Craine M, Stolz D, Bingisser R, Muller C, Miedinger D, Huber PR, et al. Procalcitonin guidance of antibiotic therapy in community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;174:84.
37. Schuetz P, Muller B, Christ-Crain M, Stolz D, Tamm M, Bouadma L, et al. Procalcitonin to initiate or discontinue antibiotics in acute respiratory tract infections. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012;9:CD007498.
38. Schuetz P, Chiappa V, Matthias B, Greenwald JL. Procalcitonin algorithms for antibiotic therapy decisions. Arch Intern Med 2011;171:1322.
39. Boussekey N, Leroy O, Alfandari S, Devos P, Georges H, Guery B. Procalcitonin kinetics in the prognosis of severe community-acquired pneumonia. Intensive Care Med 2006;32:469.
40. Fine MJ, Auble TE, Yearly DM, Hanusa BH, Weissfeld LA, Singer DE, et al. A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia. N Engl J Med 1997;336:243–50.
41. Lim WS, van der Eerden MM, Laing R, Boersma WG, Karalus N, Town GI, et al. Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study. Thorax 2003;58:377–82.
42. Albrich W, Dusemund F, Ruegger K, Christ-Crain M, Zimmerli W, Bregenzer T, et al. Enhancement of CURB65 score with proadrenomedullin (CURB65-A) for outcome prediction in lower respiratory tract infections: Derivation of a clinical algorithm. BMC Infect Dis 2011;11:112.
43. File TM. Antibiotic studies for the treatment of communityacquired pneumonia in adults. Available from www.uptodate.com.
44. MIC Interpretive Standards for S. pneumonia. Clin Laborat Stand Inst (CLSI) 2008;28:123.
45. Weinstein MP, Klugman KP, Jones RN. Rationale for revised penicillin susceptibility breakpoints versus Streptococcus pneumonia: coping with antimicrobial susceptibility in an era of resistance. Clin Infect Dis 2009;48:1596.
46. Corso A, Severina EP, Petruk VF. Molecular characterization of penicillin-resistant Streptococcus pneumonia isolate causing respiratory disease in the United States. Microb Drug Resist 1998;4:325.
47. Shortridge VD, Doem GV, Brueggemann AB, Beyer JM, Flamm RK. Prevalence of macrolide resistance mechanisms in Streptococcus pneumonia isolates from a multicenter antibiotic resistance surveillance study conducted in the United State in 1994-1995. Clin Infec Dis 1999;29:1186.
48. Okada T, Morozumi M, Tajima T, Hasegawa M, Sakata H, Ohnari S, et al. Rapid effectiveness of minocycline or doxycycline against macrolide-resistant Mycoplasma pneumonia infection in a 2011 outbreak among Japanese children. Clin Infec Dis 2012;55:1642–9.
49. Caballero JD, Del Campo R, Mate MD, Gálvez M, Rodríguez-Domínguez M, Canto_n R, et al. First report of macrolide resistance in a mycoplasma pneumonia isolate causing communityacquired pneumonia in Spain. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014;58:1265–6.
50. Mongkolrattanothai K, Boyle S, Kahana MD, Daum RS. Severe Staphylococcus aureus infections caused by clonally related community-acquired methicillin-susceptible and methicillinresistant isolates. Clin Infect Dis 2003;37:1050–8.
51. Deresinski S. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus: an evolutionary, epidemiologic and therapeutic odyssey. Clin Infec Dis 2005;40:562–73.
52. Sicot N, Khanafer N, Meyssonnier V, Dumitrescu O, Tristan A, Bes M, et al. Methicillin resistance is not a predictor of severity in community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus necrotizing pneumonia: results of a prospective observational study. Clin Microbiol Infect 2013;19:E142–8.
53. File TM, Wilcox MH, Stein GE. Summary of ceftaroline fosamil clinical trial studies and clinical safety. Clin Infec Dis 2012;55: S173.
54. Hawkey PM. Mechanisms of quinolone action and microbial response. J Antimicrob Chemother 2003;51:29–35.
55. Mandell LA, Marrie TJ, Grossman RF, Chow AW, Hyland RH. Canadian guidelines for the initial management of communityacquired pneumonia: an evidence-based update by the Canadian infectious diseases society and the Canadian Thoracic Society. The Canadian Pneumonia Working Group. Clin Infec Dis 2000;31:383.
56. Spindler C, Strlin K, Eriksson L, Hjerdt-Goscinski G, Holmberg H, Lidman C, et al. Swedish guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompetent adults – Swedish Society of Infectious Diseases 2012. Scand J Infect Dis 2012;44:885–902.
57. Capelastegui A, Espana PP, Quintana JM, Gorordo I, Ortega M, Idoiaga I, Bilbao A. Improvement of process of care and outcomes after implementing a guideline for the management of communityacquired pneumonia: a controlled before and after design study. Clin Infect Dis 2004;39:955–63.
58. Dean NC, Silver MP, Bateman KA, James B, Hadlock CJ, Hale D. Decreased mortality after implementation of a treatment guidelines for community-acquired pneumonia. Am J Med 2001;110:451–7.
59. Gleason P, Meehan T, Fine J, Galusha DH, Fine MJ. Associations between initial antimicrobial therapy and medical outcomes for hospitalized elderly patients with pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 1999;159:2562–72.
60. Houck PM, MacLehose RF, Niederman MS, Lowery JK. Empiric antibiotic therapy and mortality among Medicare pneumonia inpatients in 10 westerns states: 1993, 1995 and 1997. Chest 2001;119:1420.
61. Brown RB, Iannini P, Gross P, Kunkel M. Impact of initial antibiotic choice on clinical outcomes in community acquired pneumonia: analysis of a hospital claims-made database. Chest 2003;123:1503–11.
62. Vazquez E, Mensa J, Martinez J, Marcos MA, Puig J, Ortega M, Torres A. Lower mortality among patients with communityacquired pneumonia treated with a macrolide plus a beta-lactam agent versus a beta-lactam agent alone. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 2005;24:190–5.
63. Nie W, Li B, Xiu Q. Beta-lactam/macrolide dual therapy versus beta-lactam monotherapy for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2014;69:1441–6.
64. Garin N, Genne D, Carballo S, Chuard C, Eich G, Hugli O, et al. Beta-lactam monotherapy vs beta-lactam macrolide combination therapy in moderately severe community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized non-inferiority trial. JAMA Intern Med 2014;174:1894–901.
65. Postma D, Cornelis H, va Werkhoven M, Thijsen SF, Hoepelman AI, Kluytmans JA, et al. Antibiotic treatment strategies for community-acquired pneumonia. N Eng J Med 2015;372:1312.
66. Dunbar LM, Wunderink RG, Habib MP, Smith LG, Tennenberg AM, Khashab MM, et al. High-dose, short-course levofloxacin for community-acquired pneumonia: a new treatment paradigm. Clin Infec Dis 2003;37:752–60.
67. Musher D, Thorner AR. Community-acquired Pneumonia. N Engl J Med 2014;371:1619–28.
68. Flore AE, Fry A, Shay D, Gubareva L, Bresee JS, Uyeki TM; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza – recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep 2011;60:1.
69. Giamarellos-Bourboulis EJ. Macrolides beyond the conventional antimicrobials: a class of potent immunomodulators. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2008;31:12–20.
70. Amsden GW. Anti-inflammatory effects of macrolides – an underappreciated benefit in the treatment of community-acquired respiratory tract infections and chronic inflammatory pulmonary conditions? J Antimicrob Chemother 2005;55:10–21.
71. Kudoh S, Azuma A, Yamamoto M, Izumi T, Ando M. Improvement of survival in patients with diffuse pan-bronchiolitis treated with low dose erythromycin. Am H Respir Crit Care Med 1998;157:1829–32.
72. Khan AR, Riaz M, Abdulhak AA, Al-Tannir MA, Garbati MA, Erwin PJ, et al. The role of statins in prevention and treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: A systematic review and meta-- analysis. PLoS One 2013;8:e52929.
73. Blum CA, Nigro N, Matthias B, Schuetz P, Ullmer E, Suter-Widmer I, et al. Adjunct prednisone therapy for patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a multicenter, doubleblind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2015;385: 1511–18.
74. Torres A, Sibila O, Ferrer M, Polverino E, Menendez R, Mensa J, et al. Effect of corticosteroids on treatment failure among hospitalized patients with severe community-acquired pneumonia and high inflammatory response: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015;313:677–86.
75. Wunderink RG, Mandell LA. Adjunctive therapy in communityacquired pneumonia. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2012;33:311–18.
76. Johnstone J, Mandell LA. Guidelines and quality measures: do they improve outcomes of patients with community-acquired pneumonia? Infect Dis Clin North Am 2013;27:71–86.
77. Musher DM, Sampath R, Rodriguez-Barradas MC. The potential role for protein-conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in adults: what is the supporting evidence? Clin Infect Dis 2011;52:633–40.
78. Griffin MR, Zhu Y, Moore MR, Whitney CG, Grijalva CG. U.S. Hospitalizations for pneumonia after a decade of pneumococcal vaccination. N Engl J Med 2013;369:155–63.
79. Hicks L, Harrison L, Flannery B, Hadler JL, Schaffner W, Craig AS, et al. Incidence of pneumococcal disease due to nonpneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) serotypes in the United States during the era of widespread PCV7 vaccination, 1998-2004. J Infect Dis 2007;196:1346–54.
80. Pilishvili T, Lexau C, Farley MM, Hadler J, Harrison LH, Bennett NM, et al. Sustained reductions in invasive pneumococcal disease in the era of conjugate vaccine. J Infect Dis 2010;201:32.
81. Musher D. Editorial Commentary: Should 13-valent protein-conjugate pneumococcal vaccine be used routinely in adults? Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:265.
82. Grohskopf LA, Olsen SJ, Sokolow LZ, Bresee JS, Cox NJ, Broder KR, et al. Prevention and control of seasonal influenza with vaccines: recommendations of the advisory committee on immunization practices (ACIP) – United States, 2014–15 Influenza Season. MMWR 2014;63:691–7.
83. Tomczyk S, Bennett NM, Stoecker C, Glerke R, Moore MR, Whitney CG, et al. Use of PCV-13 and PTSV-23 vaccine among adults aged 65 and older. MMWR 2014;63:822–5.