Convective Mixing in the Earth's Mantle

Treatise on Geochemistry

Volumn 2-9, Issue , 2007, Pages 1-21

  van Keken, P E ^a   Ballentine, C J ^b   Hauri, E H ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER   (United Kingdom)

^c GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BASALT; GEOCHEMISTRY; MELTING; MIXING; SILICATES; TRACE ELEMENTS;

CHEMICAL HETEROGENEITIES; CONVECTIVE MIXING; EARTH MANTLE; GEOCHEMICALS; LARGE-SCALES; LOWER MANTLE; MID-OCEANIC-RIDGE BASALTS; OCEAN-ISLAND BASALTS; SILICATE MANTLES; UPPER MANTLE;

INERT GASES;

EID: 84942418771     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/02012-0     Document Type: Chapter

References (149)

1. Albarède F. Time-dependent models of U-Th-He and K-Ar evolution and the layering of mantle convection. Chem. Geol. 1998, 145:413-429.
2. Albarède F., van der Hilst R.D. Zoned mantle convection. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2569-2592.
3. Allègre C.J. The evolution of mantle mixing. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2411-2431.
4. Allègre C.J., Lewin E. Chemical structure and history of the Earth: evidence from global non-linear inversion of isotopic data in a three-box model. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1989, 96:61-88.
5. Allègre C.J., Lewin E. Isotopic systems and stirring times of the Earth's mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1995, 136:629-646.
6. Allègre C.J., Othman D.B., Polve M., Richard P. The Nd-Sr isotopic correlation in mantle materials and geodynamic consequences. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 1979, 19:293-306.
7. Allègre C.J., Turcotte D.L. Implications of a two-component marble cake mantle. Nature 1986, 323:123-127.
8. Anderson D.L. Upper mantle transition zone-Eclogite. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1979, 6:433-436.
9. Anderson D.L. The scales of mantle convection. Tectonophysics 1998, 284:1-17.
10. Anderson D.L. The helium paradoxes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1998, 95:4822-4827.
11. Anderson D.L. The case for irreversible chemical stratification of the mantle. Int. Geol. Rev. 2002, 44:97-116.
12. Ballentine C.J., van Keken P.E., Porcelli D., Hauri E. Numerical models, geochemistry, and the zero paradox noble gas mantle. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2611-2631.
13. Becker T.W., Kellogg J.B., O'Connell R.J. Thermal constraints on the survival of primitive blobs in the lower mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1999, 171:351-365.
14. Bercovici D. The generation of plate tectonics from mantle convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2003, 205:107-121.
15. Bijwaard H., Spakman W., Engdahl E.R. Closing the gap between regional and global travel time tomography. J. Geophys. Res. 1998, 103:30055-30078.
16. Blankenbach B., Busse F., Christensen U., Cserepes L., Gunkel D., Hansen U., Harder H., Jarvis G., Koch M., Marquart G., Moore D., Olson P., Schmeling H., Schnaubelt T. A benchmark comparison for mantle convection codes. Geophys. J. Int. 1989, 98:23-38.
17. Butler S. L. and Peltier W. R. (2002). Thermal evolution of the Earth: models with time-dependent layering of mantle convection which satisfy the Urey ratio constraint. J. Geophys. Res. 107, doi:10.1029/2000JB0000018.
18. Carlson R.W. Mechanisms for Earth differentiation: consequences for the chemical structure of the mantle. Rev. Geophys. 1994, 32:337-361.
19. Castillo P. The DUPAL anomaly as a trace of the upwelling lower mantle. Nature 1988, 366:667-670.
20. Christensen U. Mixing by time-dependent convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1989, 95:382-394.
21. Christensen U.R., Hofmann A.W. Segregation of subducted oceanic crust in the convecting mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99:19867-19884.
22. Christensen U.R., Yuen D.A. The interaction of a subducting lithospheric slab with a chemical or phase boundary. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89:4389-4402.
23. Coltice N., Ferrachat S., Ricard Y. Box modeling the chemical evolution of geophysical systems: case study of the Earth's mantle. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2000, 27:1579-1582.
24. Coltice N., Ricard Y. Geochemical observations and one layer mantle convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1999, 174:125-137.
25. Coltice N., Ricard Y. On the origin of noble gases in mantle plumes. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2633-2648.
26. Convective motion (2006) Movie of the 2D time-dependent model of convection used to describe mixing, (accessed on July 2006). http://www.geo.lsa.umich.edu/~keken/treatise.
27. Creager K.C., Jordan T.H. Slab penetration into the lower mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89:3031-3049.
28. Creager K.C., Jordan T.H. Slab penetration into the lower mantle beneath the Mariana and other island arcs of the northwest Pacific. J. Geophys. Res. 1986, 91:3573-3589.
29. Cuvelier C., Segal A., and van Steenhoven A. A. (1986) Finite Element Models and the Navier-Stokes Equations. Reidel, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 483pp. . http://dutita0.twi.tude1ft.nl./sepran/sepran.html.
30. Davaille A., Girard F., Le Bars M. How to anchor hotspots in a convecting mantle?. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2002, 203:621-634.
31. Davies G.F. Geophysical and isotopic constraints on mantle convection: an interim synthesis. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89:6017-6040.
32. Davies G.F. Topography: a robust constraint on mantle fluxes. Chem. Geol. 1998, 145:479-489.
33. Davies G.F. Stirring geochemistry in mantle convection models with stiff plates and slabs. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 2002, 66:3125-3142.
34. 144Nd. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1976, 3:743-746.
35. Dupeyrat L., Sotin C., Parmentier E.M. Thermal and chemical convection in planetary mantles. J. Geophys. Res. 1995, 100:497-520.
36. Dziewonski A.M. Mapping the lower mantle: determination of lateral heterogeneity in P velocity up to degree and order 6. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89:5929-5952.
37. Dziewonski A.M., Woodhouse J.H. Global images of the Earth's interior. Science 1987, 236:37-48.
38. Eiler J.M., Farley K.A., Valley J.W., Hauri E.H., Craig H., Hart S.R., Stolper E.M. Oxygen isotope variations in ocean island basalt phenocrysts. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1997, 61:2281-2293.
39. Eiler J.M., Schiano P., Kitchen N., Stolper E.M. Oxygen isotope evidence for recycled crust in the sources of mid-ocean ridge basalts. Nature 2000, 403:530-534.
40. Farley K.A., Natland J.H., Craig H. Binary mixing of enriched and undegassed (primitive?) mantle components (He, Sr, Nd, Pb) in Samoan lavas. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1992, 111:183-199.
41. Farnetani C.G., Legras B., Tackley P.J. Mixing and deformation in mantle plumes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2002, 196:1-15.
42. Farnetani C.G., Samuel H. Lagrangian structures and stirring in the Earth's mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2003, 206:335-348.
43. Faure G., Hurley P.M. The isotopic composition of strontium in oceanic and continental basalt: application to the origin of igneous rocks. J. Petrol. 1963, 4:31-50.
44. Ferrachat S., Ricard Y. Regular vs. chaotic mantle mixing. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1998, 155:75-86.
45. Ferrachat S., Ricard Y. Mixing properties in the Earth's mantle: effects of the viscosity stratification and of oceanic crust segregation. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2001, 2.
46. Fukao Y., Obayashi M., Inoue H., Nenbai M. Subducting slabs stagnant in the mantle transition zone. J. Geophys. Res. 1992, 97:4809-4822.
47. Galer S.J.G., O'Nions R.K. Residence time of thorium, uranium and lead in the mantle with implications for mantle convection. Nature 1985, 316:778-782.
48. Grand S.P. Mantle shear structure beneath the Americas and surrounding oceans. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99:11591-11621.
49. Grand S.P. Mantle shear-wave tomography and the fate of subducted slabs. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2475-2491.
50. Gurnis M., Davies G.F. Mixing in numerical models of mantle convection incorporating plate kinematics. J. Geophys. Res. 1986, 91:6375-6395.
51. Gurnis M., Davies G.F. The effect of depth-dependent viscosity on convective mixing in the mantle and the possible survival of primitive mantle. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1986, 13:541-544.
52. Hager B.H., Richards M.A. Long-wavelength variations in Earth's geoid: physical models and dynamical implications. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 1989, 328:309-327.
53. Hanan B.B., Graham D.W. Lead and helium isotope evidence from oceanic basalts for a common deep source of mantle plumes. Science 1996, 272:991-995.
54. Hart S.R. A large-scale isotope anomaly in the southern hemisphere mantle. Nature 1984, 309:753-757.
55. Hart S.R., Hauri E.H., Oschmann L.A., Whitehead J.A. Mantle plumes and entrainment: isotopic evidence. Science 1992, 26:517-520.
56. Hart S.R., Schilling J.G., Powell J.L. Basalts from Iceland and along the Reykjanes Ridge: Sr isotopic geochemistry. Nature 1973, 246:104-107.
57. Hauri E.H. Osmium isotopes and mantle convection. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2371-2382.
58. Hauri E.H., Hart S.R. Re-Os systematics of EMII and HIMU oceanic island basalts from the South Pacific Ocean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1993, 114:353-371.
59. Hauri E.H., Hart S.R. Rhenium abundances and systematics in oceanic basalts. Chem. Geol. 1997, 139:185-205.
60. Hauri E.H., Whitehead J.A., Hart S.R. Geochemical and fluid dynamic aspects of entrainment in mantle plumes. J. Geophys. Res. 1994, 99:24275-24300.
61. Helffrich G.R., Wood B.J. The Earth's mantle. Nature 2001, 412:501-508.
62. Hilton D.R., Thirlwall M.F., Taylor R.N., Murton B.J., Nicols A. Controls on the magmatic degassing along the Reykjanes Ridge with implications for the helium paradox. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2000, 183:43-50.
63. Hofmann A.W. Nb in Hawaiian magmas: constraints on source composition and evolution. Chem. Geol. 1986, 57:17-30.
64. Hofmann A.W. Chemical differentiation of the Earth: the relationship between mantle, continental crust, and oceanic crust. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1988, 90:297-314.
65. Hofmann A.W. Mantle geochemistry: the message from oceanic volcanism. Nature 1997, 385:219-229.
66. Hofmann A.W., White W.M. The role of subducted oceanic crust in mantle evolution. Carnegie Yearb 1980, 79:477-483.
67. Hoffman N.R.A., McKenzie D.P. The destruction of geochemical heterogeneities by differential fluid motions during mantle convection. Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. 1985, 82:163-206.
68. 4 and some geophysical implications. J. Geophys. Res. 1989, 94:10637-10646.
69. Jacobsen S.B. Isotopic constraints on crustal growth and recycling. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1988, 90:315-329.
70. Jacobsen S.B., Wasserburg G.J. The mean age of mantle and crustal reservoirs. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84:7411-7427.
71. Jarvis G.T., McKenzie D.P. Convection in a compressible fluid with infinite Prandtl number. J. Fluid Mech. 1980, 96:515-583.
72. Jellinek A.M., Manga M. The influence of a chemical boundary layer on the fixity, spacing and lifetime of mantle plumes. Nature 2002, 418:760-763.
73. Jordan T.H. Lithospheric slab penetrations into the lower mantle beneath the Sea of Okhotsk. J. Geophys. Res. 1977, 43:473-496.
74. Kellogg J.B., Jacobsen S.B., O'Connell R.J. Modeling the distribution of isotopic ratios in geochemical reservoirs. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2002, 204:183-202.
75. Kellogg L.H., Hager B.H., van der Hilst R.D. Compositional stratification in the deep mantle. Science 1999, 283:1881-1884.
76. Kellogg L.H., Stewart C.A. Mixing by chaotic convection in an infinite Prandtl number fluid and implications for mantle convection. Phys. Fluids A 1991, 3:1374-1378.
77. Kellogg L.H., Turcotte D.L. Mixing and the distribution of heterogeneities in a chaotically convecting mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1990, 95:421-432.
78. Kellogg L.H., Wasserburg G.J. The role of plumes in mantle helium fluxes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1990, 99:276-389.
79. Kopitzke U. Finite element convection models: comparison of shallow and deep mantle convection and temperatures in the mantle. J. Geophys. 1979, 46:97-121.
80. Kramers J.D., Tolstikhin I.N. Two terrestrial lead isotope paradoxes, forward transport modeling, core formation and the history of the continental crust. Chem. Geol. 1997, 139:75-110.
81. Kumagai I. On the anatomy of mantle plumes: effect of the viscosity ratio on entrainment and stirring. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2002, 198:211-224.
82. Lassiter J.C., Hauri E.H. Osmium isotope variations in Hawaiian lavas: evidence for recycled oceanic lithosphere in the Hawaiian plume. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1998, 164:483-496.
83. Lehnert K., Su Y., Langmuir C.H., Sarbas B., Nohl U. A global geochemical database structure for rocks. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2000, 1.
84. Lithgow-Bertelloni C., Richards M.A. The dynamics of Cenozoic and Mesozoic plate motions. Rev. Geophys. 1998, 36:27-78.
85. Loper D.E. A simple model of whole-mantle convection. J. Geophys. Res. 1985, 90:1809-1836.
86. Manga M. Mixing of heterogeneities in the mantle: effect of viscosity differences. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 22:1949-1952.
87. Marquart G., Schmeling H. Interaction of small mantle plumes with the spinel-perovskite phase boundary: implications for chemical mixing. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2000, 177:241-254.
88. McKenzie D.P. Speculation on the consequences and causes of plate motions. Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. 1969, 18:1-32.
89. McKenzie D.P. Finite deformation during fluid flow. Geophys. J. Roy. Astron. Soc. 1979, 58:689-715.
90. McKenzie D.P., Roberts J.M., Weiss N.O. Convection in the Earth's mantle: towards a numerical simulation. J. Fluid Mech. 1974, 62:465-538.
91. McNamara A.K., van Keken P.E. Cooling of the Earth: a parameterized convection study of whole vs. layered models. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2000, 1.
92. Merveilleux du Vignaux N., Fleitout L. Stretching and mixing of viscous blobs in the Earth's mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 2001, 106:30893-30908.
93. Mitrovica J.X., Forte A.M. Pleistocene glaciation and the Earth's precession constant. Geophys. J. Int. 1995, 121:21-32.
94. Newsom H.E., White W.M., Jochum K.P., Hofmann A.W. Siderophile and chalcophile element abundances in oceanic basalts, Pb isotope evolution and growth of the Earth's core. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1986, 80:299-313.
95. Olson P., Kincaid C. Experiments on the interaction of thermal-convection and compositional layering at the base of the mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1991, 96:4347-4354.
96. Olson P., Yuen D.A., Balsiger D. Mixing of passive heterogeneities by mantle convection. J. Geophys. Res. 1984, 89:425-436.
97. O'Nions R.K., Evensen N.M., Hamilton P.J. Geochemical modeling of mantle differentiation and crustal growth. J. Geophys. Res. 1979, 84:6091-6101.
98. O'Nions R.K., Oxburgh E.R. Heat and helium in the Earth. Nature 1983, 306:429-431.
99. O'Nions R.K., Tolstikhin I.N. Behaviour and residence times of lithophile and rare gas tracers in the upper mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1994, 124:131-138.
100. Ottino J. (1989) The Kinematics of Mixing: Stretching, Chaos, and Transport. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA, 364pp.
101. Paul D., White W.M., Turcotte D.L. Modelling the isotopic evolution of the Earth. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2433-2474.
102. Paulssen H. Evidence for a sharp 670-km discontinuity as inferred from P-to-S converted waves. J. Geophys. Res. 1988, 93:10489-10500.
103. Porcelli D., Ballentine C.J. Models for the distribution of terrestrial noble gases and the evolution of the atmosphere. Rev. Min. Geochem. 2002, 47:411-480.
104. Porcelli D., Wasserburg G.J. Mass transfer of xenon through a steady-state upper mantle. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1995, 59:1991-2007.
105. Porcelli D., Wasserburg G.J. Mass transfer of helium, neon, argon and xenon through a steady-state upper mantle. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 1995, 59:4921-4937.
106. Puster P., Jordan T.H. How stratified is mantle convection?. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102:7625-7646.
107. Richter F.M. Convection and the large-scale circulation of the mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1973, 78:8735-8745.
108. Richter F.M., McKenzie D.P. On some consequences and possible causes of layered mantle convection. J. Geophys. Res. 1981, 86:6133-6142.
109. Richter F.M., Parsons B. On the interaction of two scales of convection in the mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1975, 80:2529-2541.
110. Richter F.M., Ribe N.M. On the importance of advection in determining the local isotopic composition of the mantle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1979, 43:212-222.
111. Ringwood A.E. Phase transformations and differentiation in subducted lithosphere: implications for mantle dynamics, basalt petrogenesis and crustal evolution. J. Geol. 1982, 90:611-643.
112. Ritsema J., van Heijst H.J., Woodhouse J.H. Complex shear wave velocity structure imaged beneath Africa and Iceland. Science 1999, 286:1925-1928.
113. Rudnick R., Fountain D.M. Nature and composition of the continental crust: a lower crustal perspective. Rev. Geophys. 1995, 33:267-309.
114. Schilling J.G. Icelandic mantle plume: geochemical evidence along the Reykjanes Ridge. Nature 1973, 242:565-571.
115. Schmalzl J., Hansen U. Mixing the Earth's mantle by thermal convection: a scale dependent phenomenon. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1994, 21:987-990.
116. Schmalzl J., Houseman G.A., Hansen U. Mixing properties of three-dimensional (3D) stationary convection. Phys. Fluids 1995, 7:1027-1033.
117. Schmalzl J., Houseman G.A., Hansen U. Mixing in vigorous, time-dependent three-dimensional convection and application to Earth's mantle. J. Geophys. Res. 1996, 101:21847-21858.
118. Schott B., Yuen D.A., Braun A. The influences of composition and temperature dependent rheology in thermal-chemical convection on entrainment of the D'-layer. Phys. Earth Planet. Inter. 2002, 129:43-65.
119. Shirey S.B., Walker R.J. The Re-Os isotope system in cosmochemistry and high-temperature geochemistry. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 1998, 26:423-500.
120. Spence D.A., Ockendon J.R., Wilmott P., Turcotte D.L., Kellogg L. Convective mixing in the mantle: the role of viscosity differences. Geophys. J. 1988, 95:79-86.
121. Silver P.G., Carlson R.W., Olson P. Deep slabs, geochemical heterogeneity, and the large-scale structure of mantle convection: investigation of an enduring paradox. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 1988, 16:477-541.
122. Silver P.G., Chan W.W. Observations of body wave multipathing from broadband seismograms: evidence for lower mantle slab penetration beneath the Sea of Okhotsk. J. Geophys. Res. 1986, 91:13787-13802.
123. Spohn T., Schubert G. Modes of mantle convection and the removal of heat from the Earth's interior. J. Geophys. Res. 1982, 87:4682-4696.
124. Stegman D. R., Richards M. A., and Baumgardner J. R. (2002) Effects of depth-dependent viscosity and plate motions on maintaining a relatively uniform mid-ocean ridge basalt reservoir in whole mantle flow. J. Geophys. Res. 107, doi:10.1029/2001JB000192.
125. Su Y. and Langmuir C. H. (2002) Global MORB chemistry compilation at the segment scale, . http://petdb.ldeo.columbia.edu/documentation/MORBcompilation.
126. Tackley P.J. Self-consistent generation of tectonic plates in three-dimensional mantle convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1998, 157:9-22.
127. Tackley P.J. Mantle convection and plate tectonics: toward an integrated physical and chemical theory. Science 2000, 288:2002-2007.
128. Tackley P.J. Self-consistent generation of tectonic plates in time-dependent, three-dimensional mantle convection simulations. 1: Pseudoplastic yielding. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2000, 1.
129. Tackley P.J. Self-consistent generation of tectonic plates in time-dependent, three-dimensional mantle convection simulations. 2: Strain weakening and asthenosphere. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2000, 1.
130. Tackley P.J. Strong heterogeneity caused by deep mantle layering. Geochem. Geophys. Geosys. 2002, 3.
131. Tackley P.J., Xie S. The thermochemical structure and evolution of Earth's mantle: constraints and numerical models. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. A 2002, 360:2593-2609.
132. Ten A.A., Yuen D.A., Podladchikov Y.Y., Larsen T.B., Pachepsky E., Malevsky A. Fractal features in mixing of non-Newtonian and Newtonian mantle convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1997, 146:401-414.
133. Trompert R., Hansen U. Mantle convection simulations with rheologies that generate plate-like behaviour. Nature 1998, 395:686-689.
134. Van den Berg A.P., van Keken P.E., Yuen D.A. The effects of a composite non-Newtonian and Newtonian rheology on mantle convection. Geophys. J. Int. 1993, 115:62-78.
135. Van der Hilst R.D., Widiyantoro S., Engdahl E.R. Evidence for deep mantle circulation from global tomography. Nature 1997, 386:578-584.
136. Van der Voo R., Spakman W., Bijwaard H. Mesozoic subducted slabs under Siberia. Nature 1999, 397:246-249.
137. Van Keken P.E., Ballentine C.J. Whole-mantle versus layered mantle convection and the role of a high-viscosity lower mantle in terrestrial volatile evolution. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1998, 156:19-32.
138. Van Keken P.E., Ballentine C.J. Dynamical models of mantle volatile evolution and the role of phase changes and temperature-dependent rheology. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:7137-7169.
139. Van Keken P.E., Ballentine C.J., Porcelli D. A dynamical investigation of the heat and helium imbalance. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2001, 188:421-434.
140. Van Keken P.E., Hauri E.H., Ballentine C.J. Mantle mixing: the generation, preservation, and destruction of chemical heterogeneity. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 2002, 30:493-525.
141. Van Keken P.E., Karato S., Yuen D.A. Rheological control of oceanic crust separation in the transition zone. Geophys. Res. Lett. 1996, 23:1821-1824.
142. Van Keken P.E., King S.D., Schmeling H., Christensen U.R., Neumeister D., Doin M.-P. A comparison of methods for the modeling of thermochemical convection. J. Geophys. Res. 1997, 102:22295-22477.
143. Van Keken P.E., Zhong S. Mixing in a 3D spherical model of present day mantle convection. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1999, 171:533-547.
144. Van Schmus W. R. (1995) Natural radioactivity of the crust and mantle. In A Handbook of Physical Constants (ed. T. J. Ahrens). AGU References Shelf 1. American Geophysical Union, Washington, DC, pp. 283-291.
145. Vlaar N.J., van Keken P.E., van den Berg A.P. Cooling of the Earth in the Archaean. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1994, 121:1-18.
146. Weinstein S.A. Induced compositional layering in a convecting fluid layer by an endothermic phase transition. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 1992, 113:23-39.
147. White W.M., Hofmann A. Sr and Nd isotope geochemistry of oceanic basalts and mantle evolution. Nature 1982, 296:821-826.
148. Zegers T.E., van Keken P.E. Mid-Archaean continent formation by crustal delamination. Geology 2001, 29:1083-1086.
149. Zindler A., Hart S. Chemical geodynamics. Annu. Rev. Earth. Planet. Sci. 1986, 14:493-571.