Premenstrual Dysphoric Disorder: Epidemiology and Treatment

Current Psychiatry Reports

Volumn 17, Issue 11, 2015, Pages

  Hantsoo, Liisa ^a   Epperson, C Neill ^a  

^a Penn Center for Women's Behavioral Wellness   (United States)

Author keywords

GABA; Menstrual cycle; PMDD; PMS; Premenstrual

Indexed keywords

3ALPHA HYDROXY 5ALPHA PREGNAN 20 ONE; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID RECEPTOR; BRAIN DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR; C REACTIVE PROTEIN; CALCIUM CARBONATE; CROCUS SATIVUS EXTRACT; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; FLUOXETINE; GINKGO BILOBA EXTRACT; INTERLEUKIN 6 RECEPTOR; OMEGA 3 FATTY ACID; PRIMROSE OIL; PROGESTERONE; SEROTONIN 1A RECEPTOR; SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; 4 AMINOBUTYRIC ACID;

5HT1A GENE; ACUTE STRESS; AEROBIC EXERCISE; AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; BOLD SIGNAL; BRAIN BLOOD FLOW; BRAIN SIZE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM FUNCTION; CEREBELLUM; CHRONIC STRESS; COGNITIVE THERAPY; CYTOKINE PRODUCTION; DIET SUPPLEMENTATION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DSM-5; ESR1 GENE; FOLLOW UP; FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; GENE; GENE EXPRESSION; GRAY MATTER; HEADACHE; HIPPOCAMPUS; HORMONE SYNTHESIS; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; INFLAMMATION; INSOMNIA; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MASS FRAGMENTOGRAPHY; MEDIAL PREFRONTAL CORTEX; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); NAUSEA; NERVOUS SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT; NEUROTRANSMISSION; NONHUMAN; PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY; PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER; PROTEIN BLOOD LEVEL; PROTON NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE; PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGY; RADIOIMMUNOASSAY; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); RECEPTOR SENSITIVITY; REVIEW; SERT GENE; YOGA; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FEMALE; METABOLISM; MOOD DISORDERS; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME; PSYCHOLOGY;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DISEASE MANAGEMENT; FEMALE; GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID; HUMANS; MOOD DISORDERS; PREMENSTRUAL DYSPHORIC DISORDER; PREMENSTRUAL SYNDROME;

EID: 84942116093     PISSN: 15233812     EISSN: 15351645     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11920-015-0628-3     Document Type: Review

References (110)

1. Dennerstein L, Lehert P, Heinemann K. Epidemiology of premenstrual symptoms and disorders. Menopause Int. 2012;18:48–51.
2. Epperson C, Steiner M, Hartlage SA, Eriksson E, Schmidt PJ, Jones I, et al. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder: evidence for a new category for DSM-5. Am J Psychiatry. 2012;169:465–75.
3. American Psychiatric Assn A. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). 5th ed. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing; 2013.
4. Hartlage SA, Freels S, Gotman N, Yonkers K. Criteria for premenstrual dysphoric disorder: secondary analyses of relevant data sets. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2012;69:300–5.
5. Freeman EW, Halberstadt SM, Rickels K, Legler JM, Lin H, Sammel MD. Core symptoms that discriminate premenstrual syndrome. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2011;20:29–35.
6. Endicott J, Nee J, Harrison W. Daily record of severity of problems (DRSP): reliability and validity. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2006;9:41–9.
7. Feuerstein M, Shaw WS. Measurement properties of the calendar of premenstrual experience in patients with premenstrual syndrome. J Reprod Med. 2002;47:279–89.
8. Allen SS, McBride CM, Pirie PL. The shortened premenstrual assessment form. J Reprod Med. 1991;36:769–72.
9. O’Brien PMS, Bäckström T, Brown C, Dennerstein L, Endicott J, Epperson CN, et al. Towards a consensus on diagnostic criteria, measurement and trial design of the premenstrual disorders: the ISPMD Montreal consensus. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2011;14:13–21.
10. ACOG: ACOG Practice Bulletin. Premenstrual syndrome. Clinical management guidelines for obsetrician-gynecologists. Int J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;73:183–91.
11. WHO WHO. The ICD-1 classification of mental, behavioral and developmental disorders. 10th revision (2nd ed.). Geneva, Switzerland; 2004.
12. Smith SS, Ruderman Y, Frye C, Homanics G, Yuan M. Steroid withdrawal in the mouse results in anxiogenic effects of 3alpha,5beta-THP: a possible model of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2006;186:323–33.
13. Li Y, Pehrson AL, Budac DP, Sánchez C, Gulinello M. A rodent model of premenstrual dysphoria: progesterone withdrawal induces depression-like behavior that is differentially sensitive to classes of antidepressants. Behav Brain Res. 2012;234:238–47.
14. Schneider T, Popik P. An animal model of premenstrual dysphoric disorder sensitive to antidepressants. Curr Protoc Neurosci. 2009; Chapter 9:Unit 9.31
15. Bäckström T, Haage D, Löfgren M, Johansson IM, Strömberg J, Nyberg S, et al. Paradoxical effects of GABA-A modulators may explain sex steroid induced negative mood symptoms in some persons. Neuroscience. 2011;191:46–54.
16. Schüle C, Nothdurfter C, Rupprecht R. The role of allopregnanolone in depression and anxiety. Prog Neurobiol. 2014;113:79–87. Review article summarizing the importance of allopregnanolone in emotion regulation, potential for therapeutic use in depression and anxiety via GABAergic mechanisms, enhancement of neurogenesis, myelination, neuroprotection, and regulatory effects on HPA axis.
17. Nelson M, Pinna G. S-norfluoxetine microinfused into the basolateral amygdala increases allopregnanolone levels and reduces aggression in socially isolated mice. Neuropharmacology. 2011;60:1154–9.
18. Shanmugan S, Epperson CN. Estrogen and the prefrontal cortex: towards a new understanding of estrogen’s effects on executive functions in the menopause transition. Hum Brain Mapp. 2014;35:847–65.
19. Kugaya A, Epperson CN, Zoghbi S, van Dyck CH, Hou Y, Fujita M, et al. Increase in prefrontal cortex serotonin 2A receptors following estrogen treatment in postmenopausal women. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160:1522–4.
20. Fink G, Sumner BE, McQueen JK, Wilson H, Rosie R. Sex steroid control of mood, mental state and memory. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1998;25:764–75.
21. Rehavi M, Goldin M, Roz N, Weizman A. Regulation of rat brain vesicular monoamine transporter by chronic treatment with ovarian hormones. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1998;57:31–7.
22. McQueen JK, Wilson H, Fink G. Estradiol-17 beta increases serotonin transporter (SERT) mRNA levels and the density of SERT-binding sites in female rat brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res. 1997;45:13–23.
23. Bertrand PP, Paranavitane UT, Chavez C, Gogos A, Jones M, van den Buuse M. The effect of low estrogen state on serotonin transporter function in mouse hippocampus: a behavioral and electrochemical study. Brain Res. 2005;1064:10–20.
24. Gundlah C, Lu NZ, Bethea CL. Ovarian steroid regulation of monoamine oxidase-A and -B mRNAs in the macaque dorsal raphe and hypothalamic nuclei. Psychopharmacology (Berlin). 2002;160:271–82.
25. Schendzielorz N, Rysa A, Reenila I, Raasmaja A, Mannisto PT. Complex estrogenic regulation of catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) in rats. J Physiol Pharmacol. 2011;62:483–90.
26. Aguirre CC, Baudry M. Progesterone reverses 17beta-estradiol-mediated neuroprotection and BDNF induction in cultured hippocampal slices. Eur J Neurosci. 2009;29:447–54.
27. Bimonte-Nelson HA, Nelson ME, Granholm A-CE. Progesterone counteracts estrogen-induced increases in neurotrophins in the aged female rat brain. Neuroreport. 2004;15:2659–63.
28. Rapkin AJ, Edelmuth E, Chang LC, Reading AE, McGuire MT, Su TP. Whole-blood serotonin in premenstrual syndrome. Obstet Gynecol. 1987;70:533–7.
29. Rasgon N, McGuire M, Tanavoli S, Fairbanks L, Rapkin A. Neuroendocrine response to an intravenous L-tryptophan challenge in women with premenstrual syndrome. Fertil Steril. 2000;73:144–9.
30. Menkes DB, Coates DC, Fawcett JP. Acute tryptophan depletion aggravates premenstrual syndrome. J Affect Disord. 1994;32:37–44.
31. Huo L, Straub RE, Roca C, Schmidt PJ, Shi K, Vakkalanka R, et al. Risk for premenstrual dysphoric disorder is associated with genetic variation in ESR1, the estrogen receptor alpha gene. Biol Psychiatry. 2007;62:925–33.
32. Dhingra V, Magnay JL, O’Brien PMS, Chapman G, Fryer AA, Ismail KMK. Serotonin receptor 1A C(-1019)G polymorphism associated with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Obstet Gynecol. 2007;110:788–92.
33. Gingnell M, Comasco E, Oreland L, Fredrikson M, Sundström-Poromaa I. Neuroticism-related personality traits are related to symptom severity in patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder and to the serotonin transporter gene-linked polymorphism 5-HTTPLPR. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2010;13:417–23.
34. Magnay JL, El-Shourbagy M, Fryer AA, O’Brien S, Ismail KMK. Analysis of the serotonin transporter promoter rs25531 polymorphism in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2010;203:181. e1–5.
35. Gray JD, Milner TA, McEwen BS. Dynamic plasticity: the role of glucocorticoids, brain-derived neurotrophic factor and other trophic factors. Neuroscience. 2013;239:214–27.
36. Colle R, Gressier F, Verstuyft C, Deflesselle E, Lépine J-P, Ferreri F, et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor Val66Met polymorphism and 6-month antidepressant remission in depressed Caucasian patients. J Affect Disord. 2015;175:233–40.
37. Harrisberger F, Smieskova R, Schmidt A, Lenz C, Walter A, Wittfeld K, et al. BDNF Val66Met polymorphism and hippocampal volume in neuropsychiatric disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2015;55:107–18.
38. Elfving B, Buttenschøn HN, Foldager L, Poulsen PHP, Andersen JH, Grynderup MB, et al. Depression, the Val66Met polymorphism, age, and gender influence the serum BDNF level. J Psychiatr Res. 2012;46:1118–25.
39. Carbone DL, Handa RJ. Sex and stress hormone influences on the expression and activity of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Neuroscience. 2013;239:295–303.
40. Pilar-Cuéllar F, Vidal R, Pazos A. Subchronic treatment with fluoxetine and ketanserin increases hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor, β-catenin and antidepressant-like effects. Br J Pharmacol. 2012;165:1046–57.
41. Deuschle M, Gilles M, Scharnholz B, Lederbogen F, Lang UE, Hellweg R. Changes of serum concentrations of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) during treatment with venlafaxine and mirtazapine: role of medication and response to treatment. Pharmacopsychiatry. 2013;46:54–8.
42. Comasco E, Hahn A, Ganger S, Gingnell M, Bannbers E, Oreland L, et al. Emotional fronto-cingulate cortex activation and brain derived neurotrophic factor polymorphism in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Hum Brain Mapp. 2014;35:4450–8. PMDD women with the BDNF Val66Met Met allele had lower fronto-cingulate cortex activation during the luteal phase compared to female controls with the Met allele.
43. Oral E, Kirkan TS, Yildirim A, Kotan Z, Cansever Z, Ozcan H, et al. Serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor differences between the luteal and follicular phases in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Gen Hosp Psychiatry. 2015;37:266–72.
44. Cubeddu A, Bucci F, Giannini A, Russo M, Daino D, Russo N, et al. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor plasma variation during the different phases of the menstrual cycle in women with premenstrual syndrome. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2011;36:523–30.
45. Pilver CE, Levy BR, Libby DJ, Desai RA. Posttraumatic stress disorder and trauma characteristics are correlates of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2011;14:383–93.
46. Bertone-Johnson ER, Whitcomb BW, Missmer SA, Manson JE, Hankinson SE, Rich-Edwards JW. Early life emotional, physical, and sexual abuse and the development of premenstrual syndrome: a longitudinal study. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2014;23:729–39. History of emotional and physical abuse were strongly correlated with moderate to severe PMS.
47. Segebladh B, Bannbers E, Kask K, Nyberg S, Bixo M, Heimer G, et al. Prevalence of violence exposure in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder in comparison with other gynecological patients and asymptomatic controls. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2011;90:746–52.
48. Klatzkin RR, Morrow AL, Light KC, Pedersen CA, Girdler SS. Associations of histories of depression and PMDD diagnosis with allopregnanolone concentrations following the oral administration of micronized progesterone. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2006;31:1208–19.
49. Crowley SK, Girdler SS. Neurosteroid, GABAergic and hypothalamic pituitary adrenal (HPA) axis regulation: what is the current state of knowledge in humans? Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2014;231:3619–34.
50. Girdler SS, Straneva PA, Light KC, Pedersen CA, Morrow AL. Allopregnanolone levels and reactivity to mental stress in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Biol Psychiatry. 2001;49:788–97.
51. Serra M, Sanna E, Mostallino MC, Biggio G. Social isolation stress and neuroactive steroids. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2007;17:1–11.
52. Evans J, Sun Y, McGregor A, Connor B. Allopregnanolone regulates neurogenesis and depressive/anxiety-like behaviour in a social isolation rodent model of chronic stress. Neuropharmacology. 2012;63:1315–26.
53. Porcu P, O’Buckley TK, Alward SE, Marx CE, Shampine LJ, Girdler SS, et al. Simultaneous quantification of GABAergic 3alpha,5alpha/3alpha,5beta neuroactive steroids in human and rat serum. Steroids. 2009;74:463–73.
54. Wium-Andersen MK, Orsted DD, Nielsen SF, Nordestgaard BG. Elevated C-reactive protein levels, psychological distress, and depression in 73, 131 individuals. JAMA Psychiatry. 2013;70:176–84. Large-scale study that found elevated CRP was associated with increased risk for depression in the general population.
55. O’Brien SM, Fitzgerald P, Scully P, Landers A, Scott LV, Dinan TG. Impact of gender and menstrual cycle phase on plasma cytokine concentrations. Neuroimmunomodulation. 2007;14:84–90.
56. Northoff H, Symons S, Zieker D, Schaible EV, Schäfer K, Thoma S, et al. Gender- and menstrual phase dependent regulation of inflammatory gene expression in response to aerobic exercise. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2008;14:86–103.
57. Gaskins AJ, Wilchesky M, Mumford SL, Whitcomb BW, Browne RW, Wactawski-Wende J, et al. Endogenous reproductive hormones and C-reactive protein across the menstrual cycle: the BioCycle study. Am J Epidemiol. 2012;175:423–31.
58. Wander K, Brindle E, O’Connor KA. C-reactive protein across the menstrual cycle. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2008;136:138–46.
59. Puder JJ, Blum CA, Mueller B, De Geyter C, Dye L, Keller U. Menstrual cycle symptoms are associated with changes in low-grade inflammation. Eur J Clin Investig. 2006;36:58–64.
60. Jane Z-Y, Chang C-C, Lin H-K, Liu Y-C, Chen W-L. The association between the exacerbation of irritable bowel syndrome and menstrual symptoms in young Taiwanese women. Gastroenterol Nurs. 2011;34:277–86.
61. Kane SV, Sable K, Hanauer SB. The menstrual cycle and its effect on inflammatory bowel disease and irritable bowel syndrome: a prevalence study. Am J Gastroenterol. 1998;93:1867–72.
62. Shourie V, Dwarakanath CD, Prashanth GV, Alampalli RV, Padmanabhan S, Bali S. The effect of menstrual cycle on periodontal health—a clinical and microbiological study. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2012;10:185–92.
63. Bertone-Johnson ER, Ronnenberg AG, Houghton SC, Nobles C, Zagarins SE, Takashima-Uebelhoer BB, et al. Association of inflammation markers with menstrual symptom severity and premenstrual syndrome in young women. Hum Reprod. 2014;29:1987–94.
64. Berman SM, London ED, Morgan M, Rapkin AJ. Elevated gray matter volume of the emotional cerebellum in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. J Affect Disord. 2013;146:266–71. Women with PMDD had greater gray matter volume in the posterior cerebellum compared with controls.
65. Jeong H-G, Ham B-J, Yeo HB, Jung I-K, Joe S-H. Gray matter abnormalities in patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder: an optimized voxel-based morphometry. J Affect Disord. 2012;140:260–7.
66. Ossewaarde L, van Wingen GA, Rijpkema M, Bäckström T, Hermans EJ, Fernández G. Menstrual cycle-related changes in amygdala morphology are associated with changes in stress sensitivity. Hum Brain Mapp. 2013;34:1187–93. Among non-PMDD women, gray matter volume in the dorsal left amygdala increased during the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase; this volume increase positively correlated with stress-induced negative affect.
67. Protopopescu X, Tuescher O, Pan H, Epstein J, Root J, Chang L, et al. Toward a functional neuroanatomy of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. J Affect Disord. 2008;108:87–94.
68. Gingnell M, Morell A, Bannbers E, Wikström J, Sundström Poromaa I. Menstrual cycle effects on amygdala reactivity to emotional stimulation in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Horm Behav. 2012;62:400–6.
69. Epperson CN, Haga K, Mason GF, Sellers E, Gueorguieva R, Zhang W, et al. Cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid levels across the menstrual cycle in healthy women and those with premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 2002;59:851–8.
70. Liu B, Wang G, Gao D, Gao F, Zhao B, Qiao M, et al. Alterations of GABA and glutamate-glutamine levels in premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a 3T proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Psychiatry Res. 2015;231:64–70. Significantly lower GABA concentrations in the anterior cingulate cortex, medial prefrontal cortex and left basal ganglia of women with PMDD.
71. Gingnell M, Bannbers E, Wikström J, Fredrikson M, Sundström-Poromaa I. Premenstrual dysphoric disorder and prefrontal reactivity during anticipation of emotional stimuli. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23:1474–83. PMDD women showed enhanced dorsolateral prefrontal cortex reactivity during the anticipation of negative stimuli during the luteal phase, which was positively correlated with progesterone levels.
72. Baller EB, Wei S-M, Kohn PD, Rubinow DR, Alarcón G, Schmidt PJ, et al. Abnormalities of dorsolateral prefrontal function in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a multimodal neuroimaging study. Am J Psychiatry. 2013;170:305–14. PMDD patients showed greater dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activation than control subjects, which may represent a risk factor for PMDD.
73. Epperson C, Pittman B, Czarkowski KA, Stiklus S, Krystal JH, Grillon C. Luteal-phase accentuation of acoustic startle response in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32:2190–8.
74. Kask K, Gulinello M, Bäckström T, Geyer MA, Sundström-Poromaa I. Patients with premenstrual dysphoric disorder have increased startle response across both cycle phases and lower levels of prepulse inhibition during the late luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2008;33:2283–90.
75. Huang Y, Zhou R, Wu M, Wang Q, Zhao Y. Premenstrual syndrome is associated with blunted cortisol reactivity to the TSST. Stress. 2015;1–9.
76. Lee EE, Nieman LK, Martinez PE, Harsh VL, Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ. ACTH and cortisol response to Dex/CRH testing in women with and without premenstrual dysphoria during GnRH agonist-induced hypogonadism and ovarian steroid replacement. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2012;97:1887–96.
77. Segebladh B, Bannbers E, Moby L, Nyberg S, Bixo M, Bäckström T, et al. Allopregnanolone serum concentrations and diurnal cortisol secretion in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2013. PMDD women with high serum levels of ALLO had blunted cortisol.
78. Maeng LY, Milad MR. Sex differences in anxiety disorders: interactions between fear, stress, and gonadal hormones. Horm Behav. 2015.
79. Brown J, O’Brien PMS, Marjoribanks J, Wyatt K. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2009; CD001396.
80. Shah NR, Jones JB, Aperi J, Shemtov R, Karne A, Borenstein J. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a meta-analysis. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;111:1175–82.
81. Marjoribanks J, Brown J, O’Brien PMS, Wyatt K. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013;6:CD001396. Cochrane review finding that SSRIs are effective in reducing premenstrual symptoms with luteal or continuous dosing.
82. Kleinstäuber M, Witthöft M, Hiller W. Cognitive-behavioral and pharmacological interventions for premenstrual syndrome or premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychol Med Settings. 2012;19:308–19.
83. Halbreich U. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and initial oral contraceptives for the treatment of PMDD: effective but not enough. CNS Spectr. 2008;13:566–72.
84. Landén M, Thase ME. A model to explain the therapeutic effects of serotonin reuptake inhibitors: the role of 5-HT2 receptors. Psychopharmacol Bull. 2006;39:147–66.
85. Steinberg EM, Cardoso GMP, Martinez PE, Rubinow DR, Schmidt PJ. Rapid response to fluoxetine in women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Depress Anxiety. 2012;29:531–40.
86. Griffin LD, Mellon SH. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors directly alter activity of neurosteroidogenic enzymes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999;96:13512–7.
87. Trauger JW, Jiang A, Stearns BA, LoGrasso PV. Kinetics of allopregnanolone formation catalyzed by human 3 alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type III (AKR1C2). Biochemistry. 2002;41:13451–9.
88. Freeman EW. Luteal phase administration of agents for the treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. CNS Drugs. 2004;18:453–68.
89. Kornstein SG, Pearlstein TB, Fayyad R, Farfel GM, Gillespie JA. Low-dose sertraline in the treatment of moderate-to-severe premenstrual syndrome: efficacy of 3 dosing strategies. J Clin Psychiatry. 2006;67:1624–32.
90. Landén M, Nissbrandt H, Allgulander C, Sörvik K, Ysander C, Eriksson E. Placebo-controlled trial comparing intermittent and continuous paroxetine in premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2007;32:153–61.
91. Ravindran LN, Woods S-A, Steiner M, Ravindran AV. Symptom-onset dosing with citalopram in the treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD): a case series. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2007;10:125–7.
92. Yonkers KA, Holthausen GA, Poschman K, Howell HB. Symptom-onset treatment for women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2006;26:198–202.
93. Freeman EW, Sondheimer SJ, Sammel MD, Ferdousi T, Lin H. A preliminary study of luteal phase versus symptom-onset dosing with escitalopram for premenstrual dysphoric disorder. J Clin Psychiatry. 2005;66:769–73.
94. Lovick T. SSRIs and the female brain—potential for utilizing steroid-stimulating properties to treat menstrual cycle-linked dysphorias. J Psychopharmacol (Oxford). 2013;27:1180–5. Proposes steroid-stimulating properties of SSRIs offer opportunities for new treatments for menstrual cycle-linked disorders in women.
95. Cunningham J, Yonkers KA, O’Brien S, Eriksson E. Update on research and treatment of premenstrual dysphoric disorder. Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2009;17:120–37.
96. Lopez LM, Kaptein AA, Helmerhorst FM. Oral contraceptives containing drospirenone for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;2:CD006586.
97. Freeman EW, Halbreich U, Grubb GS, Rapkin AJ, Skouby SO, Smith L, et al. An overview of four studies of a continuous oral contraceptive (levonorgestrel 90 mcg/ethinyl estradiol 20 mcg) on premenstrual dysphoric disorder and premenstrual syndrome. Contraception. 2012;85:437–45.
98. Ford O, Lethaby A, Roberts H, Mol BWJ. Progesterone for premenstrual syndrome. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;3:CD003415.
99. Pincus SM, Alam S, Rubinow DR, Bhuvaneswar CG, Schmidt PJ. Predicting response to leuprolide of women with premenstrual dysphoric disorder by daily mood rating dynamics. J Psychiatr Res. 2011;45:386–94.
100. Freeman EW, Sondheimer SJ, Rickels K. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist in the treatment of premenstrual symptoms with and without ongoing dysphoria: a controlled study. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1997;33:303–9.
101. Wyatt KM, Dimmock PW, Ismail KMK, Jones PW, O’Brien PMS. The effectiveness of GnRHa with and without “add-back” therapy in treating premenstrual syndrome: a meta analysis. BJOG. 2004;111:585–93.
102. Busse JW, Montori VM, Krasnik C, Patelis-Siotis I, Guyatt GH. Psychological intervention for premenstrual syndrome: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Psychother Psychosom. 2009;78:6–15.
103. Lustyk MKB, Gerrish WG, Shaver S, Keys SL. Cognitive-behavioral therapy for premenstrual syndrome and premenstrual dysphoric disorder: a systematic review. Arch Womens Ment Health. 2009;12:85–96.
104. Kim DR, Hantsoo L, Thase ME, Sammel M, Epperson CN. Computer-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy for pregnant women with major depressive disorder. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2014;23:842–8. Internet-based cognitive-behavioral therapy reduces burden on the patient in female-specific affective disorder.
105. Kues JN, Janda C, Kleinstäuber M, Weise C. Internet-based cognitive behavioural self-help for premenstrual syndrome: study protocol for a randomised controlled trial. Trials. 2014;15:472. Proposed criteria for internet based CBT program for PMS/PMDD.
106. Yonkers KA, Pearlstein TB, Gotman N. A pilot study to compare fluoxetine, calcium, and placebo in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 2013;33:614–20. Placebo-controlled study showing calcium carbonate reduced PMS symptoms, but not to the degree of fluoxetine.
107. Sohrabi N, Kashanian M, Ghafoori SS, Malakouti SK. Evaluation of the effect of omega-3 fatty acids in the treatment of premenstrual syndrome: “a pilot trial.”. Complement Ther Med. 2013;21:141–6. A randomized double blind controlled trial showing that after 45 days of taking two grams omega-3 fatty acids daily, women with PMS showed decreased depression, anxiety, and cognitive symptoms.
108. Dante G, Facchinetti F. Herbal treatments for alleviating premenstrual symptoms: a systematic review. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 2011;32:42–51.
109. Daley A. Exercise and premenstrual symptomatology: a comprehensive review. J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2009;18:895–9.
110. Bäckström T, Bixo M, Johansson M, Nyberg S, Ossewaarde L, Ragagnin G, et al. Allopregnanolone and mood disorders. Prog Neurobiol. 2014;113:88–94.