Modelled and observed changes in aerosols and surface solar radiation over Europe between 1960 and 2009

Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics

Volumn 15, Issue 16, 2015, Pages 9477-9500

  Turnock, S T ^a   Spracklen, D V ^a   Carslaw, K S ^a   Mann, G W ^a   Woodhouse, M T ^a,e   Forster, P M ^a   Haywood, J ^b   Johnson, C E ^b   Dalvi, M ^b   Bellouin, N ^c   Sanchez Lorenzo, A ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS   (United Kingdom)

^b MET OFFICE   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF READING   (United Kingdom)

^d INSTITUTO PIRENAICO DE ECOLOGÍA   (Spain)

^e CSIRO   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AEROSOL FORMATION; AEROSOL PROPERTY; CARBON EMISSION; CLIMATE MODELING; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); OPTICAL DEPTH; RADIATIVE FORCING; SIZE DISTRIBUTION; SOLAR RADIATION;

EUROPE;

EID: 84940062017     PISSN: 16807316     EISSN: 16807324     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/acp-15-9477-2015     Document Type: Article

References (73)

1. Allen, R. J., Norris, J. R., and Wild, M.: Evaluation of multidecadal variability in CMIP5 surface solar radiation and inferred underestimation of aerosol direct effects over Europe, China, Japan, and India, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 118, 6311-6336, doi:10.1002/jgrd.50426, 2013.
2. Arneth, A., Unger, N., Kulmala, M., and Andreae, M. O.: Clean the Air, Heat the Planet?, Science, 326, 672-673, doi:10.1126/science.1181568, 2009.
3. Asmi, A., Wiedensohler, A., Laj, P., Fjaeraa, A.-M., Sellegri, K., Birmili, W., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Zdimal, V., Zikova, N., Putaud, J.-P., Marinoni, A., Tunved, P., Hansson, H.-C., Fiebig, M., Kivekäs, N., Lihavainen, H., Asmi, E., Ulevicius, V., Aalto, P. P., Swietlicki, E., Kristensson, A., Mihalopoulos, N., Kalivitis, N., Kalapov, I., Kiss, G., de Leeuw, G., Henzing, B., Harrison, R. M., Beddows, D., O'Dowd, C., Jennings, S. G., Flentje, H., Weinhold, K., Meinhardt, F., Ries, L., and Kulmala, M.: Number size distributions and seasonality of submicron particles in Europe 2008-2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 5505-5538, doi:10.5194/acp-11-5505-2011, 2011.
4. Asmi, A., Collaud Coen, M., Ogren, J. A., Andrews, E., Sheridan, P., Jefferson, A., Weingartner, E., Baltensperger, U., Bukowiecki, N., Lihavainen, H., Kivekäs, N., Asmi, E., Aalto, P. P., Kulmala, M., Wiedensohler, A., Birmili, W., Hamed, A., O'Dowd, C., G Jennings, S., Weller, R., Flentje, H., Fjaeraa, A. M., Fiebig, M., Myhre, C. L., Hallar, A. G., Swietlicki, E., Kristensson, A., and Laj, P.: Aerosol decadal trends - Part 2: In-situ aerosol particle number concentrations at GAW and ACTRIS stations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 895-916, doi:10.5194/acp-13-895-2013, 2013.
5. 2.5) particulate matter measurements in Europe: trends and variability, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 3189-3203, doi:10.5194/acp-12-3189-2012, 2012.
6. Bellouin, N., Rae, J., Jones, A., Johnson, C., Haywood, J., and Boucher, O.: Aerosol forcing in the Climate Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5) simulations by HadGEM2-ES and the role of ammonium nitrate, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D20206, doi:10.1029/2011JD016074, 2011.
7. Bellouin, N., Mann, G. W., Woodhouse, M. T., Johnson, C., Carslaw, K. S., and Dalvi, M.: Impact of the modal aerosol scheme GLOMAP-mode on aerosol forcing in the Hadley Centre Global Environmental Model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 3027-3044, doi:10.5194/acp-13-3027-2013, 2013.
8. Berglen, T. F., Myhre, G., Isaksen, I. S., Vestreng, V., and Smith, S. J.: Sulphate trends in Europe: are we able to model the recent observed decrease?, Tellus B, 59, 773-786, doi:10.3402/tellusb.v59i4.17056, 2007.
9. Boucher, O., Randall, P., Artaxo, P., Bretherton, C., Feingold, G., Forster, P., Kerminen, V.-M., Kondo, Y., Liao, H., Lohmann, U., Rasch, P., Satheesh, S. K., Sherwood, S., Stevens, B., and Zhang, X. Y.: Clouds and Aerosols, in: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013.
10. Chalmers, N., Highwood, E. J., Hawkins, E., Sutton, R., and Wilcox, L. J.: Aerosol contribution to the rapid warming of near-term climate under RCP 2.6, Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, 2-7, doi:10.1029/2012GL052848, 2012.
11. Chiacchio, M., Solmon, F., Giorgi, F., Stackhouse, P., and Wild, M.: Evaluation of the radiation budget with a regional climate model over Europe and inspection of dimming and brightening, J. Geophys. Res.-Atmos., 120, 1951-1971, doi:10.1002/2014JD022497, 2015.
12. Chin, M., Diehl, T., Tan, Q., Prospero, J. M., Kahn, R. A., Remer, L. A., Yu, H., Sayer, A. M., Bian, H., Geogdzhayev, I. V., Holben, B. N., Howell, S. G., Huebert, B. J., Hsu, N. C., Kim, D., Kucsera, T. L., Levy, R. C., Mishchenko, M. I., Pan, X., Quinn, P. K., Schuster, G. L., Streets, D. G., Strode, S. A., Torres, O., and Zhao, X.-P.: Multi-decadal aerosol variations from 1980 to 2009: a perspective from observations and a global model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 3657-3690, doi:10.5194/acp-14-3657-2014, 2014.
13. Colette, A., Granier, C., Hodnebrog, Ø., Jakobs, H., Maurizi, A., Nyiri, A., Bessagnet, B., D'Angiola, A., D'Isidoro, M., Gauss, M., Meleux, F., Memmesheimer, M., Mieville, A., Rouïl, L., Russo, F., Solberg, S., Stordal, F., and Tampieri, F.: Air quality trends in Europe over the past decade: a first multi-model assessment, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11657-11678, doi:10.5194/acp-11-11657-2011, 2011.
14. Collaud Coen, M., Andrews, E., Asmi, A., Baltensperger, U., Bukowiecki, N., Day, D., Fiebig, M., Fjaeraa, A. M., Flentje, H., Hyvärinen, A., Jefferson, A., Jennings, S. G., Kouvarakis, G., Lihavainen, H., Lund Myhre, C., Malm, W. C., Mihapopoulos, N., Molenar, J. V., O'Dowd, C., Ogren, J. A., Schichtel, B. A., Sheridan, P., Virkkula, A., Weingartner, E., Weller, R., and Laj, P.: Aerosol decadal trends - Part 1: In-situ optical measurements at GAW and IMPROVE stations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 869-894, doi:10.5194/acp-13-869-2013, 2013.
15. COMEAP: The Mortality Effects of Long-term Exposure to Particulate Air Pollution in the United Kingdom, Tech. rep., Health Protection Agency for the Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants, 2010.
16. Davies, T., Cullen, M. J. P., Malcolm, A. J., Mawson, M. H., Staniforth, A., White, A. A., and Wood, N.: A new dynamical core for the Met Office's global and regional modelling of the atmosphere, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 1759-1782, doi:10.1256/qj.04.101, 2005.
17. de Meij, A., Krol, M., Dentener, F., Vignati, E., Cuvelier, C., and Thunis, P.: The sensitivity of aerosol in Europe to two different emission inventories and temporal distribution of emissions, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 4287-4309, doi:10.5194/acp-6-4287-2006, 2006.
18. Dee, D. P., Uppala, S. M., Simmons, A. J., Berrisford, P., Poli, P., Kobayashi, S., Andrae, U., Balmaseda, M. A., Balsamo, G., Bauer, P., Bechtold, P., Beljaars, A. C. M., van de Berg, L., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Delsol, C., Dragani, R., Fuentes, M., Geer, A. J., Haimberger, L., Healy, S. B., Hersbach, H., Hólm, E. V., Isaksen, L., Kå llberg, P., Köhler, M., Matricardi, M., McNally, A. P., Monge-Sanz, B. M., Morcrette, J.-J., Park, B.-K., Peubey, C., de Rosnay, P., Tavolato, C., Thépaut, J.-N., and Vitart, F.: The ERA-Interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 137, 553-597, doi:10.1002/qj.828, 2011.
19. Edwards, J. M. and Slingo, A.: Studies with a flexible new radiation code. I: Choosing a configuration for a largescale model, Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 122, 689-719, doi:10.1002/qj.49712253107, 1996.
20. Essery, R. L. H., Best, M. J., Betts, R., and Cox, P. M.: Explicit Representation of Subgrid Heterogeneity in a GCM Land Surface Scheme, J. Hydrometeor., 4, 530-543, 2002.
21. Fagerli, H. and Aas, W.: Trends of nitrogen in air and precipitation: Model results and observations at EMEP sites in Europe, 1980-2003, Environ. Pollut., 154, 448-461, 2008.
22. Farina, S. C., Adams, P. J., and Pandis, S. N.: Modeling global secondary organic aerosol formation and processing with the volatility basis set: Implications for anthropogenic secondary organic aerosol, J. Geophys. Res., 115, D09202, doi:10.1029/2009JD013046, 2010.
23. Fiore, A. M., Naik, V., Spracklen, D. V., Steiner, A., Unger, N., Prather, M., Bergmann, D., Cameron-Smith, P. J., Cionni, I., Collins, W. J., Dalsø ren, S., Eyring, V., Folberth, G. a., Ginoux, P., Horowitz, L. W., Josse, B., Lamarque, J.-F., MacKenzie, I. a., Nagashima, T., O'Connor, F. M., Righi, M., Rumbold, S. T., Shindell, D. T., Skeie, R. B., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., and Zeng, G.: Global air quality and climate., Chem. Soc. Rev., 41, 6663-83, doi:10.1039/c2cs35095e, 2012.
24. Folini, D. and Wild, M.: Aerosol emissions and dimming/brightening in Europe: Sensitivity studies with ECHAM5-HAM, J. Geophys. Res., 116, D21104, doi:10.1029/2011JD016227, 2011.
25. Gong, S. L.: A parameterization of sea-salt aerosol source function for sub- and super-micron particles, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 17, 1097, doi:10.1029/2003GB002079, 2003.
26. Granier, C., Bessagnet, B., Bond, T. C., D'Angiola, A., Denier van der Gon, H., Frost, G. J., Heil, A., Kaiser, J. W., Kinne, S., Klimont, Z., Kloster, S., Lamarque, J.-F., Liousse, C., Masui, T., Meleux, F., Mieville, A., Ohara, T., Raut, J.-C., Riahi, K., Schultz, M. G., Smith, S. J., Thompson, A., Aardenne, J., Werf, G. R., and Vuuren, D. P.: Evolution of anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of air pollutants at global and regional scales during the 1980-2010 period, Clim. Change, 109, 163-190, doi:10.1007/s10584-011-0154-1, 2011.
27. Guenther, A., Hewitt, C. N., Erickson, D., Fall, R., Geron, C., Graedel, T., Harley, P., Klinger, L., Lerdau, M., Mckay, W. A., Pierce, T., Scholes, B., Steinbrecher, R., Tallamraju, R., Taylor, J., and Zimmerman, P.: A global model of natural volatile organic compound emissions, J. Geophys. Res., 100, 8873, doi:10.1029/94JD02950, 1995.
28. 2 emission trends in the United States from the early 1990s through 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 10353-10365, doi:10.5194/acp-12-10353-2012, 2012.
29. Harrison, R. M., Stedman, J., and Derwent, D.: New Directions: Why are PM10 concentrations in Europe not falling?, Atmos. Environ., 42, 603-606, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.11.023, 2008.
30. Heald, C. L. and Spracklen, D. V.: Atmospheric budget of primary biological aerosol particles from fungal spores, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, 1-5, doi:10.1029/2009GL037493, 2009.
31. Hewitt, H. T., Copsey, D., Culverwell, I. D., Harris, C. M., Hill, R. S. R., Keen, A. B., McLaren, A. J., and Hunke, E. C.: Design and implementation of the infrastructure of HadGEM3: the next-generation Met Office climate modelling system, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 223-253, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-223-2011, 2011.
32. Hodzic, A., Madronich, S., Bohn, B., Massie, S., Menut, L., and Wiedinmyer, C.: Wildfire particulate matter in Europe during summer 2003: meso-scale modeling of smoke emissions, transport and radiative effects, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 4043-4064, doi:10.5194/acp-7-4043-2007, 2007.
33. Holben, B., Eck, T., Slutsker, I., Tanré, D., Buis, J., Setzer, A., Vermote, E., Reagan, J., Kaufman, Y., Nakajima, T., Lavenu, F., Jankowiak, I., and Smirnov, A.: AERONET - A Federated Instrument Network and Data Archive for Aerosol Characterization, Remote Sens. Environ., 66, 1-16, doi:10.1016/S0034-4257(98)00031-5, 1998.
34. Hurrell, J. W., Hack, J. J., Shea, D., Caron, J. M., and Rosinski, J.: A New Sea Surface Temperature and Sea Ice Boundary Dataset for the Community Atmosphere Model, J. Climate, 21, 5145-5153, doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2292.1, 2008.
35. Jones, A., Roberts, D. L., Woodage, M. J., and Johnson, C. E.: Indirect sulphate aerosol forcing in a climate model with an interactive sulphur cycle, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 20293, doi:10.1029/2000JD000089, 2001.
36. Kettle, A. J. and Andreae, M. O.: Flux of dimethylsulfide from the oceans: A comparison of updated data sets and flux models, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 26793, doi:10.1029/2000JD900252, 2000.
37. Koch, D., Bauer, S. E., Del Genio, A., Faluvegi, G., McConnell, J. R., Menon, S., Miller, R. L., Rind, D., Ruedy, R., Schmidt, G. a., and Shindell, D. T.: Coupled Aerosol-Chemistry-Climate Twentieth-Century Transient Model Investigation: Trends in Short-Lived Species and Climate Responses, J. Climate, 24, 2693-2714, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI3582.1, 2011.
38. 2 oxidation in clouds: Comparisons of several models, J. Geophys. Res., 108, 4213, doi:10.1029/2002JD002697, 2003.
39. Lamarque, J.-F., Bond, T. C., Eyring, V., Granier, C., Heil, A., Klimont, Z., Lee, D., Liousse, C., Mieville, A., Owen, B., Schultz, M. G., Shindell, D., Smith, S. J., Stehfest, E., Van Aardenne, J., Cooper, O. R., Kainuma, M., Mahowald, N., McConnell, J. R., Naik, V., Riahi, K., and van Vuuren, D. P.: Historical (1850-2000) gridded anthropogenic and biomass burning emissions of reactive gases and aerosols: methodology and application, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 10, 7017-7039, doi:10.5194/acp-10-7017-2010, 2010.
40. Langmann, B., Varghese, S., Marmer, E., Vignati, E., Wilson, J., Stier, P., and O'Dowd, C.: Aerosol distribution over Europe: a model evaluation study with detailed aerosol microphysics, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 8, 1591-1607, doi:10.5194/acp-8-1591-2008, 2008.
41. Leibensperger, E. M., Mickley, L. J., Jacob, D. J., Chen, W.-T., Seinfeld, J. H., Nenes, A., Adams, P. J., Streets, D. G., Kumar, N., and Rind, D.: Climatic effects of 1950-2050 changes in US anthropogenic aerosols - Part 1: Aerosol trends and radiative forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 3333-3348, doi:10.5194/acp-12-3333-2012, 2012.
42. Liss, P. and Merlivat, L.: Air-Sea Gas Exchange Rates: Introduction and Synthesis, in: The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling, 113-127, D. Reidel, 1986.
43. Manders, A. M. M., van Meijgaard, E., Mues, A. C., Kranenburg, R., van Ulft, L. H., and Schaap, M.: The impact of differences in large-scale circulation output from climate models on the regional modeling of ozone and PM, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 9441-9458, doi:10.5194/acp-12-9441-2012, 2012.
44. Manktelow, P. T., Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., and Chipperfield, M. P.: Regional and global trends in sulfate aerosol since the 1980s, Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L14803, doi:10.1029/2006GL028668, 2007.
45. Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Spracklen, D. V., Ridley, D. A., Manktelow, P. T., Chipperfield, M. P., Pickering, S. J., and Johnson, C. E.: Description and evaluation of GLOMAP-mode: a modal global aerosol microphysics model for the UKCA composition-climate model, Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 519-551, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-519-2010, 2010.
46. Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Ridley, D. A., Spracklen, D. V., Pringle, K. J., Merikanto, J., Korhonen, H., Schwarz, J. P., Lee, L. A., Manktelow, P. T., Woodhouse, M. T., Schmidt, A., Breider, T. J., Emmerson, K. M., Reddington, C. L., Chipperfield, M. P., and Pickering, S. J.: Intercomparison of modal and sectional aerosol microphysics representations within the same 3-D global chemical transport model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 4449-4476, doi:10.5194/acp-12-4449-2012, 2012.
47. Mann, G. W., Carslaw, K. S., Reddington, C. L., Pringle, K. J., Schulz, M., Asmi, A., Spracklen, D. V., Ridley, D. A., Woodhouse, M. T., Lee, L. A., Zhang, K., Ghan, S. J., Easter, R. C., Liu, X., Stier, P., Lee, Y. H., Adams, P. J., Tost, H., Lelieveld, J., Bauer, S. E., Tsigaridis, K., van Noije, T. P. C., Strunk, A., Vignati, E., Bellouin, N., Dalvi, M., Johnson, C. E., Bergman, T., Kokkola, H., von Salzen, K., Yu, F., Luo, G., Petzold, A., Heintzenberg, J., Clarke, A., Ogren, J. A., Gras, J., Baltensperger, U., Kaminski, U., Jennings, S. G., O'Dowd, C. D., Harrison, R. M., Beddows, D. C. S., Kulmala, M., Viisanen, Y., Ulevicius, V., Mihalopoulos, N., Zdimal, V., Fiebig, M., Hansson, H.-C., Swietlicki, E., and Henzing, J. S.: Intercomparison and evaluation of global aerosol microphysical properties among AeroCom models of a range of complexity, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 4679-4713, doi:10.5194/acp-14-4679-2014, 2014.
48. Marmer, E., Langmann, B., Fagerli, H., and Vestreng, V.: Direct shortwave radiative forcing of sulfate aerosol over Europe from 1900 to 2000, J. Geophys. Res., 112, D23S17, doi:10.1029/2006JD008037, 2007.
49. Morgenstern, O., Braesicke, P., O'Connor, F. M., Bushell, A. C., Johnson, C. E., Osprey, S. M., and Pyle, J. A.: Evaluation of the new UKCA climate-composition model - Part 1: The stratosphere, Geosci. Model Dev., 2, 43-57, doi:10.5194/gmd-2-43-2009, 2009.
50. Myhre, G., Shindell, D., Breon, F.-M., Collins, W., Fuglestvedt, J., Huang, J., Koch, D., Lamarque, J.-F., Lee, D., Mendoza, B., Nakajima, T., Robock, A., Stephens, G., Takemura, T., and Zhang, H.: Anthropogenic and Natural Radiative Forcing, in: Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernemental Panel on Cliamte Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 2013.
51. O'Connor, F. M., Johnson, C. E., Morgenstern, O., Abraham, N. L., Braesicke, P., Dalvi, M., Folberth, G. A., Sanderson, M. G., Telford, P. J., Voulgarakis, A., Young, P. J., Zeng, G., Collins, W. J., and Pyle, J. A.: Evaluation of the new UKCA climate-composition model - Part 2: The Troposphere, Geosci. Model Dev., 7, 41-91, doi:10.5194/gmd-7-41-2014, 2014.
52. Penner, J. E., Prather, M. J., Isaksen, I. S. a., Fuglestvedt, J. S., Klimont, Z., and Stevenson, D. S.: Short-lived uncertainty?, Nat. Geosci., 3, 587-588, doi:10.1038/ngeo932, 2010.
53. Philipona, R., Behrens, K., and Ruckstuhl, C.: How declining aerosols and rising greenhouse gases forced rapid warming in Europe since the 1980s, Geophys. Res. Lett., 36, L02806, doi:10.1029/2008GL036350., 2009.
54. Pozzer, A., de Meij, A., Pringle, K. J., Tost, H., Doering, U. M., van Aardenne, J., and Lelieveld, J.: Distributions and regional budgets of aerosols and their precursors simulated with the EMAC chemistry-climate model, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 961-987, doi:10.5194/acp-12-961-2012, 2012.
55. Ramanathan, V. and Feng, Y.: Air pollution, greenhouse gases and climate change: Global and regional perspectives, Atmos. Environ., 43, 37-50, doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.09.063, 2009.
56. Sanchez-Lorenzo, A., Wild, M., and Trentmann, J.: Validation and stability assessment of the monthly mean CM SAF surface solar radiation dataset over Europe against a homogenized surface dataset (1983-2005), Remote Sens. Environ., 134, 355-366, doi:10.1016/j.rse.2013.03.012, 2013.
57. Schultz, M. G., Heil, A., Hoelzemann, J. J., Spessa, A., Thonicke, K., Goldammer, J. G., Held, A. C., Pereira, J. M. C., and van het Bolscher, M.: Global wildland fire emissions from 1960 to 2000, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 22, GB2002, doi:10.1029/2007GB003031, 2008.
58. Scott, C. E., Rap, A., Spracklen, D. V., Forster, P. M., Carslaw, K. S., Mann, G. W., Pringle, K. J., Kivekäs, N., Kulmala, M., Lihavainen, H., and Tunved, P.: The direct and indirect radiative effects of biogenic secondary organic aerosol, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 447-470, doi:10.5194/acp-14-447-2014, 2014.
59. Shindell, D. T., Lamarque, J.-F., Schulz, M., Flanner, M., Jiao, C., Chin, M., Young, P. J., Lee, Y. H., Rotstayn, L., Mahowald, N., Milly, G., Faluvegi, G., Balkanski, Y., Collins, W. J., Conley, A. J., Dalsoren, S., Easter, R., Ghan, S., Horowitz, L., Liu, X., Myhre, G., Nagashima, T., Naik, V., Rumbold, S. T., Skeie, R., Sudo, K., Szopa, S., Takemura, T., Voulgarakis, A., Yoon, J.-H., and Lo, F.: Radiative forcing in the ACCMIP historical and future climate simulations, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 13, 2939-2974, doi:10.5194/acp-13-2939-2013, 2013.
60. Skeie, R. B., Berntsen, T. K., Myhre, G., Tanaka, K., Kvalevåg, M. M., and Hoyle, C. R.: Anthropogenic radiative forcing time series from pre-industrial times until 2010, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 11827-11857, doi:10.5194/acp-11-11827-2011, 2011.
61. Smith, S. J., van Aardenne, J., Klimont, Z., Andres, R. J., Volke, A., and Delgado Arias, S.: Anthropogenic sulfur dioxide emissions: 1850-2005, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 1101-1116, doi:10.5194/acp-11-1101-2011, 2011.
62. Spracklen, D. V., Carslaw, K. S., Kulmala, M., Kerminen, V.-M., Mann, G. W., and Sihto, S.-L.: The contribution of boundary layer nucleation events to total particle concentrations on regional and global scales, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 5631-5648, doi:10.5194/acp-6-5631-2006, 2006.
63. Spracklen, D. V., Jimenez, J. L., Carslaw, K. S., Worsnop, D. R., Evans, M. J., Mann, G. W., Zhang, Q., Canagaratna, M. R., Allan, J., Coe, H., McFiggans, G., Rap, A., and Forster, P.: Aerosol mass spectrometer constraint on the global secondary organic aerosol budget, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 11, 12109-12136, doi:10.5194/acp-11-12109-2011, 2011.
64. Tørseth, K., Aas, W., Breivik, K., Fjæraa, A. M., Fiebig, M., Hjellbrekke, A. G., Lund Myhre, C., Solberg, S., and Yttri, K. E.: Introduction to the European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme (EMEP) and observed atmospheric composition change during 1972-2009, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 12, 5447-5481, doi:10.5194/acp-12-5447-2012, 2012.
65. Tsigaridis, K., Daskalakis, N., Kanakidou, M., Adams, P. J., Artaxo, P., Bahadur, R., Balkanski, Y., Bauer, S. E., Bellouin, N., Benedetti, A., Bergman, T., Berntsen, T. K., Beukes, J. P., Bian, H., Carslaw, K. S., Chin, M., Curci, G., Diehl, T., Easter, R. C., Ghan, S. J., Gong, S. L., Hodzic, A., Hoyle, C. R., Iversen, T., Jathar, S., Jimenez, J. L., Kaiser, J. W., Kirkevåg, A., Koch, D., Kokkola, H., Lee, Y. H, Lin, G., Liu, X., Luo, G., Ma, X., Mann, G. W., Mihalopoulos, N., Morcrette, J.-J., Müller, J.-F., Myhre, G., Myriokefalitakis, S., Ng, N. L., O'Donnell, D., Penner, J. E., Pozzoli, L., Pringle, K. J., Russell, L. M., Schulz, M., Sciare, J., Seland, Ø., Shindell, D. T., Sillman, S., Skeie, R. B., Spracklen, D., Stavrakou, T., Steenrod, S. D., Takemura, T., Tiitta, P., Tilmes, S., Tost, H., van Noije, T., van Zyl, P. G., von Salzen, K., Yu, F., Wang, Z., Wang, Z., Zaveri, R. A., Zhang, H., Zhang, K., Zhang, Q., and Zhang, X.: The AeroCom evaluation and intercomparison of organic aerosol in global models, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 14, 10845-10895, doi:10.5194/acp-14-10845-2014, 2014.
66. Uppala, S. M., Kållberg, P. W., Simmons, A. J., Andrae, U., Bechtold, V. D. C., Fiorino, M., Gibson, J. K., Haseler, J., Hernandez, A., Kelly, G. A., Li, X., Onogi, K., Saarinen, S., Sokka, N., Allan, R. P., Andersson, E., Arpe, K., Balmaseda, M. A., Beljaars, A. C. M., Berg, L. V. D., Bidlot, J., Bormann, N., Caires, S., Chevallier, F., Dethof, A., Dragosavac, M., Fisher, M., Fuentes, M., Hagemann, S., Hólm, E., Hoskins, B. J., Isaksen, L., Janssen, P. A. E. M., Jenne, R., Mcnally, A. P., Mahfouf, J.-F., Morcrette, J.-J., Rayner, N. A., Saunders, R. W., Simon, P., Sterl, A., Trenberth, K. E., Untch, A., Vasiljevic, D., Viterbo, P., and Woollen, J.: The ERA-40 re-analysis, Q. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 131, 2961-3012, doi:10.1256/qj.04.176, 2005.
67. Vestreng, V., Myhre, G., Fagerli, H., Reis, S., and Tarrasón, L.: Twenty-five years of continuous sulphur dioxide emission reduction in Europe, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 7, 3663-3681, doi:10.5194/acp-7-3663-2007, 2007.
68. Volkamer, R., Jimenez, J. L., San Martini, F., Dzepina, K., Zhang, Q., Salcedo, D., Molina, L. T., Worsnop, D. R., and Molina, M. J.: Secondary organic aerosol formation from anthropogenic air pollution: Rapid and higher than expected, Geophys. Res. Lett., 33, L17811, doi:10.1029/2006GL026899, 2006.
69. Walters, D. N., Best, M. J., Bushell, A. C., Copsey, D., Edwards, J. M., Falloon, P. D., Harris, C. M., Lock, A. P., Manners, J. C., Morcrette, C. J., Roberts, M. J., Stratton, R. A., Webster, S., Wilkinson, J. M., Willett, M. R., Boutle, I. A., Earnshaw, P. D., Hill, P. G., MacLachlan, C., Martin, G. M., Moufouma-Okia, W., Palmer, M. D., Petch, J. C., Rooney, G. G., Scaife, A. A., and Williams, K. D.: The Met Office Unified Model Global Atmosphere 3.0/3.1 and JULES Global Land 3.0/3.1 configurations, Geosci. Model Dev., 4, 919-941, doi:10.5194/gmd-4-919-2011, 2011.
70. Wild, M.: Global dimming and brightening: A review, J. Geophys. Res., 114, D00D16, doi:10.1029/2008JD011470, 2009.
71. Wild, O., Zhu, X., and Prather, M. J.: Fast-J: Accurate Simulation of In- and Below-Cloud Photolysis in Tropospheric Chemical Models, J. Atmos. Chem., 37, 245-282, doi:10.1023/A:1006415919030, 2000.
72. Woodward, S.: Modeling the atmospheric life cycle and radiative impact of mineral dust in the Hadley Centre climate model, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 18155, doi:10.1029/2000JD900795, 2001.
73. Yu, H., Kaufman, Y. J., Chin, M., Feingold, G., Remer, L. A., Anderson, T. L., Balkanski, Y., Bellouin, N., Boucher, O., Christopher, S., DeCola, P., Kahn, R., Koch, D., Loeb, N., Reddy, M. S., Schulz, M., Takemura, T., and Zhou, M.: A review of measurement-based assessments of the aerosol direct radiative effect and forcing, Atmos. Chem. Phys., 6, 613-666, doi:10.5194/acp-6-613-2006, 2006.