Renewable fuels from biomass: Technical hurdles and economic assessment of biological routes

AIChE Journal

Volumn 61, Issue 9, 2015, Pages 2689-2701

  Klein Marcuschamer, Daniel ^a,b   Blanch, Harvey W ^b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF QUEENSLAND   (Australia)

^b LAWRENCE BERKELEY NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^c UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Biofuels; Biomass pretreatment; Lignocellulose; Techno economic model

Indexed keywords

BIOFUELS; CELLULOSIC ETHANOL; COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS; COST EFFECTIVENESS; ECONOMIC ANALYSIS; FATTY ACIDS; LIGNOCELLULOSIC BIOMASS; SACCHARIFICATION; SUGAR INDUSTRY; SUGARS;

BIOFUELS PRODUCTION; BIOMASS PRE TREATMENTS; COST-EFFECTIVE PRODUCTION; ECONOMIC ASSESSMENTS; LIGNOCELLULOSE; REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS; TECHNO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS; TECHNO-ECONOMIC MODEL;

BIOMASS;

ZEA MAYS;

EID: 84938744275     PISSN: 00011541     EISSN: 15475905     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/aic.14755     Document Type: Article

References (124)

1. SERI. A Guide to Commercial-Scale Ethanol Production and Financing. Bank SEID, Solar Energy Research Institute, Department of Energy, Golden, CO, 1980:118.
2. Isaacs SH. Ethanol Production by Enzymatic Hydrolysis: Parametric Analysis of a Base-Case Process. SERI/TR-231-2093. Golden, CO, 1984:64.
3. SERI. Alcohol Fuels Bibliography (1901-March 1980). Bank SEID, SERI/SP 751-902: US Department of Energy, Golden, CO, 1981:439.
4. U.S.D.O.E. From Biomass to Biofuels: A Roadmap to the Energy Future. Washington, DC: Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, Office of Science OoBaER, 2005.
5. Bergius F. Conversion of wood to carbohydrates and problems in the industrial use of concentrated hydrochloric acid. Ind Eng Chem. 1937;29:247.
6. Boehm R. The Masonite Process. Ind Eng Chem. 1930;22(5):493-497.
7. Sendich EN, Laser M, Kim S, Alizadeh H, Laureano-Perez L, Dale B, Lynd L . Recent process improvements for the ammonia fiber expansion (AFEX) process and resulting reductions in minimum ethanol selling price. Bioresour Technol. 2008;99(17):8429-8435.
8. Blanch H, Simmons B, Klein-Marcuschamer D. Biomass deconstruction to sugars. Biotechnol J. 2011;6:1086-1102.
9. Richard T, Chisti Y, Somerville C, Blanch HW, Babcock B. The food versus fuel debate. Biofuels. 2012;3(6):635-648.
10. Armah P, Archer A, Phillips GC. Drivers Leading to Higher Food Prices: Biofuels are not the Main Factor. New York: Springer, 2011.
11. Darlington T. Land Use Effects of U.S. Corn-Based Ethanol. Available at: http://www.airimprovement.com/reports/land_use_effects_of_us_corn.pdf 2009.
12. Oladosu G, Kline K. The role of modeling assumptions and policy instruments in evaluating the global implications of us biofuel policies. In: 33rd IAEE International Conference "The Future of Energy: Global Challenges, Diverse Solutions". Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2010.
13. Shi J TV, Yancey NA, Stavila V, Simmons BA, Singh S. Impact of mixed feedstocks and feedstock densification on ionic liquid pretreatment efficiency. Biofuels. 2013;4(1):63-72.
14. Sokhansanj S, Hess JR. Biomass supply logistics and infrastructure. Methods Mol Biol. 2009;581:1-25.
15. Mani S, Tabil LG, Sokhansanj S. Effects of compressive force, particle size and moisture content on mechanical properties of biomass pellets from grasses. Biomass Bioenergy. 2006;30(7):648-654.
16. McKendry P. Energy production from biomass (part 1): overview of biomass. Bioresour Technol. 2002;83(1):37-46.
17. Richard TL. Challenges in scaling up biofuels infrastructure. Science. 2010;329(5993):793-796.
18. Nolan A, McDonnell K, Devlin GJ, Carroll JP, Finnan J. Economic analysis of manufacturing costs of pellet production in the Republic of Ireland using non-woody biomass. Open Renew Energy J. 2010;3:1-11.
19. Rentizelas AA, Tolis AJ, Tatsiopoulos IP. Logistics issues of biomass: the storage problem and the multi-biomass supply chain. Renew Sustain Energ Rev. 2009;13(4):887-894.
20. Overend RP. The average haul distance and transportation work factors for biomass delivered to a central plant. Biomass. 1982;2(1):75-79.
21. Graham RL, Nelson R, Sheehan J, Perlack RD, Wright LL. Current and potential US corn stover supplies. Agron J. 2007;99(1):1-11.
22. Searcy E, Flynn P, Ghafoori E, Kumar A. The relative cost of biomass energy transport. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2007;137-140(1-12):639-652.
23. Gutesa SD, Darr MJ, Shah A. Large square bale biomass transportation analysis. In: 2012 American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual International Meeting, Dallas, TX: American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers (ASABE), 2012.
24. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Oleskowicz-Popiel P, Simmons BA, Blanch HW. Technoeconomic analysis of biofuels: a wiki-based platform for lignocellulosic biorefineries. Biomass Bioenergy. 2010;34:1914-1921.
25. Kazi FK, Fortman J, Anex R, Kothandaraman G, Hsu D, Aden A, Dutta A . Technoeconomic Analysis of Biochemical Scenarios for the Production of Cellulosic Ethanol. Golden, CO: NREL, 2010.
26. U.S.D.O.E. U.S. Billion-Ton Update: Biomass Supply for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 2011.
27. Jain AK, Khanna M, Erickson M, Huang HX. An integrated biogeochemical and economic analysis of bioenergy crops in the Midwestern United States. Glob Change Biol Bioenergy. 2010;2(5):217-234.
28. USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. 2014; Available at: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/. Accessed on October 10, 2014.
29. Kilner P, Griffin T, Cooker B, Weinberg R, Inventors; Edeniq, assignee. Method and systems for pretreatment of biomass solids, US 20130210085 A1, 2013.
30. Mosier N, Wyman C, Dale B, Elander R, Lee YY, Holtzapple M, Ladisch M . Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass. Bioresource Technol. 2005;96(6):673-686.
31. Sticklen M. Feedstock genetic engineering for alcohol fuels. Crop Sci. 2007;47:2238-2248.
32. Mullet J, Morishige D, McCormack R, Truong S, Hilley J, McKinley B, Anderson R, Olson S, Rooney W . Energy sorghum-a genetic model for the design of C4 grass bioenergy crops. J Exp Botany. 2014.
33. Zhao Q, Dixon R. Altering the cell wall and its impact on plant disease: from forage to bioenergy. Annu Rev Phytopathol. 2014;52:69-91.
34. Park S, Mei C, Pauly M, Ong R, Dale B, Sabzikar R, Fotoh H, Nguyen T, Sticklen M . Downregulation of maize cinnamoyl-coenzyme a reductase via RNA interference technology causes brown midrib and improves ammonia fiber expansion-pretreated conversion into fermentable sugars for biofuels. Crop Sci. 2012;52(6):2687-2701.
35. Li M, Pattathil S, Hahn M, Hodge D. Identification of features associated with plant cell wall recalcitrance to pretreatment by alkaline hydrogen peroxide in diverse bioenergy feedstocks using glycome profiling. RSC Adv. 2014;4:17282-17292.
36. Simmons BA, Loque D, Ralph J. Advances in modifying lignin for enhanced biofuel production. Curr Opin Plant Biol. 2010;13(3):313-320.
37. Eudes A, George A, Mukerjee P, Kim JS, Pollet B, Benke PI, Yang F, Mitra P, Sun L, Çetinkol ÖP, Chabout S, Mouille G, Soubigou-Taconnat L, Balzergue S, Singh S, Holmes BM, Mukhopadhyay A, Keasling JD, Simmons BA, Lapierre C, Ralph J, Loqué D . Biosynthesis and incorporation of side-chain-truncated lignin monomers to reduce lignin polymerization and enhance saccharification. Plant Biotechnol J. 2012;10(5):609-620.
38. Fort D, Remsing R, Swatloski R, Moyna P, Rogers R. Can ionic liquids dissolve wood? Processing and analysis of lignocellulosic materials with 1-n-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride. Green Chem. 2007;9:63.
39. Shill K, Padmanabhan S, Xin Q, Prausnitz J, Clark D, Blanch H. Ionic liquid pretreatment of cellulosic biomass: enzymatic hydrolysis and ionic liquid recycle. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2011;108(3):511-520.
40. Li C, Knierim B, Manisseri C, Arora R, Scheller HV, Auer M, Vogel KP, Simmons BA, Singh S . Comparison of dilute acid and ionic liquid pretreatment of switchgrass: biomass recalcitrance, delignification and enzymatic saccharification. Bioresour Technol. 2010;101(13):4900-4906.
41. Doherty TV, Mora-Pale M, Foley SE, Linhardt RJ, Dordick JS. Ionic liquid solvent properties as predictors of lignocellulose pretreatment efficacy. Green Chem. 2010;110(1):79-86.
42. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Oleskowicz-Popiel P, Simmons BA, Blanch HW. The challenge of enzyme cost in the production of lignocellulosic biofuels. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2012;109(4):1083-1087.
43. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Simmons BA, Blanch HW. Techno-economic analysis of a lignocellulosic ethanol biorefinery with ionic liquid pre-treatment. Biofuel Bioprod Bior. 2011;5(5):562-569.
44. Sun N, Parthasarathi R, Socha A, Shi J, Zhang S, Stavila V, Sale K, Simmons BA, Singh S . Understanding pretreatment efficacy of four cholinium and imidazolium ionic liquids by chemistry and computation. Green Chem. 2014;16(5):2546-2557.
45. Aden A, Foust T. Technoeconomic analysis of the dilute sulfuric acid and enzymatic hydrolysis process for the conversion of corn stover to ethanol. Cellulose. 2009;16(4):535-545.
46. Lynd LR, Laser MS, Brandsby D, Dale BE, Davison B, Hamilton R, Himmel M, Keller M, McMillan JD, Sheehan J, Wyman CE . How biotech can transform biofuels. Nat Biotechnol. 2008;26(2):169-172.
47. Barta Z, Kovacs K, Reczey K, Zacchi G. Process design and economics of on-site cellulase production on various carbon sources in a softwood-based ethanol plant. Enzyme Res. 2010;2010:734182.
48. Kazi FK, Fortman JA, Anex RP, Hsu DD, Aden A, Dutta A, Kothandaraman G . Techno-economic comparison of process technologies for biochemical ethanol production from corn stover. Fuel. 2010;89:S20-S28.
49. Kim Y, Ximenes E, Mosier NS, Ladisch MR. Soluble inhibitors/deactivators of cellulase enzymes from lignocellulosic biomass. Enzyme Microb Technol. 2011;48(4-5):408-415.
50. Horn SJ, Vaaje-Kolstad G, Westereng B, Eijsink VG. Novel enzymes for the degradation of cellulose. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2012;5(1):45.
51. Lin L, Meng X, Liu P, Hong Y, Wu G, Huang X, Li C, Dong J, Xiao L, Liu Z . Improved catalytic efficiency of endo-beta-1, 4-glucanase from Bacillus subtilis BME-15 by directed evolution. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2009;82(4):671-679.
52. Sathitsuksanoh N, George A, Zhang YHP. New lignocellulose pretreatments using cellulose solvents: a review. J Chem Technol Biotechnol. 2013;88(2):169-180.
53. Brennan TCR, Datta S, Blanch HW, Simmons BA, Holmes BM. Recovery of sugars from ionic liquid biomass liquor by solvent extraction. Bioenergy Res. 2010;3(2):123-133.
54. Oleskowicz-Popiel P, Klein-Marcuschamer D, Simmons BA, Blanch HW. Lignocellulosic ethanol production without enzymes-technoeconomic analysis of ionic liquid pretreatment followed by acidolysis. Bioresour Technol. 2014;158:294-299.
55. Ohgren K, Bura R, Saddler J, Zacchi G. Effect of hemicellulose and lignin removal on enzymatic hydrolysis of steam pretreated corn stover. Bioresour Technol. 2007;98(13):2503-2510.
56. Roche CM, Dibble CJ, Knutsen JS, Stickel JJ, Liberatore MW. Particle concentration and yield stress of biomass slurries during enzymatic hydrolysis at high-solids loadings. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2009;104(2):290-300.
57. Roche CM, Dibble CJ, Stickel JJ. Laboratory-scale method for enzymatic saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass at high-solids loadings. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2009;2(1):28.
58. Konda NM, Shi J, Singh S, Blanch HW, Simmons BA, Klein-Marcuschamer D. Understanding cost drivers and economic potential of two variants of ionic liquid pretreatment for cellulosic biofuel production. Biotechnol Biofuels. 2014;7:86.
59. Koshland D. Stereochemistry and the mechanism of enzymatic reactions. Biol Rev. 1953;28(4):416-436.
60. Fox J, Jess P, Jambusaria R, et al. A single-molecule analysis reveals morphological targets for cellulase synergy. Nat Chem Biol. 2013;9:356-361.
61. Fox J, Levine S, Clark D, Blanch H. Initial- and processive-cut products reveal cellobiohydrolase rate limitations and the role of companion enzymes. Biochemistry. 2012;51:442-452.
62. Wu I, Arnold F. Engineered thermostable fungal Cel6A and Cel7A cellobiohydrolases hydrolyze cellulose efficiently at elevated temperatures. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2013;110(7):1874-1883.
63. Voutilainen S, Nurmi-Rantala S, Penttila M, Koivula A. Engineering chimeric thermostable GH7 cellobiohydrolases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2014;98:2991-3001.
64. Dana C, Dotson-Fagerstrom A, Roche CM, Kal S, Chokhawala H, Blanch HW, Clark D . The importance of pyroglutamate in cellulase Cel7A. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2014;111(4):842-847.
65. Hongoh Y. Toward the functional analysis of uncultivable, symbiotic microorganisms in the termite gut. Cell Mol Life Sci. 2011;68:1311-1325.
66. Bignell D, Eggleton P. On the elevated intestinal pH of hihgher termites (Isoptera: Termitidae). Int Neuropsychol Soc. 1995;42:57-69.
67. Warnecke F, Luginbuhl R, Ivanova N, Ghassemian M. Metagenomic and functional analysis of hindgut microbiota of a wood-feeding higher termite. Nat Biotechnol. 2007;450:560-565.
68. Zverlov V, Schwarz W. The C. thermocellum cellulosome: novel components and insights from the genomic sequence. In: Uversky U, Kataeva I, editors. Cellulosome. Hauppauge NY: Nova Science Publishers, 2006:119-151.
69. Jin M, Balan V, Gunawan C, Dale BE. Consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) performance of clostridium phytofermentans on AFEX-treated corn stover for ethanol production. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2011;108(6):1290-1297.
70. Ho N, Chen Z, Brainard A. Genetically engineered Saccharomyces yeast capable of effective cofermentation fo glucose and xylose. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1998;64(5):1852-1859.
71. Farwick A, Bruder S, Shchadeweg V, Oreb M, Boles E. Engineering of yeast hexose transporters to transport D-xylose without inhibition by D-glucose. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(14):5159-5164.
72. Sanchez V, Karhumaa K. Xylose fermentation as a challenge for commercialization of lignocellulosic fuels and chemicals. Biotechnol Lett. In press. DOI 10.1007/s10529-014-1756-2 Dec, 2014.
73. Huffer S, Roche CM, Blanch HW, Clark D. Escherichia coli for biofuel production: bridging the gap from promise to practice. Trends Biotechnol. 2012;30(10):538-545.
74. Tracy B, Jones S, Fast A, Indurthi D, Papoutsakis E. Clostridia: the importance of their exceptional substrate and metabolite diversity for biofuel and biorefinery applications. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2012;23:364-381.
75. Anbarasan P, Baer Z, Sreekumar S, Gross E, Binder J, Blanch H, Clark D, Toste F . Integration of chemical catalysis with extractive fermentation to produce fuels. Nat Biotechnol. 2012;491:235-239.
76. Borman S, Baer Z, Sreekumar S, et al. Engineering clostridium acetobutylicum for production of kerosene and diesel blendstock precursors. Metab Eng. 2014;25:124-130.
77. Sreekumar S, Baer Z, Gross E, Padmanabhan S, Goulas K, Gunbas G, Alayoglu S, Blanch HW, Clark D, Toste F . Chemocatalytic upgrading of tailored fermentation products toward biodiesel. ChemSusChem. 2014;7:2445-2448.
78. Trinh C, Li J, Blanch HW, Clark D. Redesigning E. coli metabolism for anaerobic production of isobutano. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011;77(14):4894-4904.
79. Generoso W, Schadeweg V, Oreb M, Boles E. Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for production of butanol isomers. Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2015;33:1-7.
80. Dugar D, Stephanopolous G. Relative potential of biosynthetic pathways for biofuels and bio-based products. Nat Biotechnol. 2011;29(12):1074-1078.
81. Qureshi N, Saha BC, Hector RE, Cotta MA. Removal of fermentation inhibitors from alkaline peroxide pretreated and enzymatically hydrolyzed wheat straw: production of butanol from hydrolysate using Clostridium beijerinckii in batch reactors. Biomass Bioenergy. 2008;32(12):1353-1358.
82. Palmqvist E, Hahn-Hagerdal B. Fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. I: inhibition and detoxification. Bioresour Technol. 2000;74(1):17-24.
83. Palmqvist E, Hahn-Hagerdal B. Fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. II: inhibitors and mechanisms of inhibition. Bioresour Technol. 2000;74(1):25-33.
84. Taherzadeh M, Eklund R, Gustafsson L, Niklasson C, Liden G. Characterization and fermentation of dilute-acid hydrolyzates from wood. Ind Eng Chem Res. 1997;36(11):4659-4665.
85. Sjostrom E. Carbohydrate degradation products from alkaline treatment of biomass. Biomass Bioenergy. 1991;1(1):61-64.
86. Klinke HB, Ahring BK, Schmidt AS, Thomsen AB. Characterization of degradation products from alkaline wet oxidation of wheat straw. Bioresour Technol. 2002;82(1):15-26.
87. Buchert J, Niemela K, Puls J, Poutanen K. Improvement in the fermentability of steamed hemicellulose hydrolysate by ion exclusion. Process Biochem. 1990;25(5):176-180.
88. Tran AV, Chambers RP. Lignin and extractives derived inhibitors in the 2, 3-Butanediol Fermentation of Mannose-Rich Prehydrolysates. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 1986;23(3-4):191-197.
89. Klinke HB, Thomsen AB, Ahring BK. Inhibition of ethanol-producing yeast and bacteria by degradation products produced during pre-treatment of biomass. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2004;66(1):10-26.
90. Heipieper HJ, Weber FJ, Sikkema J, Keweloh H, Debont JAM. Mechanisms of resistance of whole cells to toxic organic-solvents. Trends Biotechnol. 1994;12(10):409-415.
91. Russell JB. Another explanation for the toxicity of fermentation acids at low pH - anion accumulation versus uncoupling. J Appl Bacteriol. 1992;73(5):363-370.
92. Palmqvist E, Almeida JS, Hahn-Hagerdal B. Influence of furfural on anaerobic glycolytic kinetics of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in batch culture. Biotechnol Bioeng. 20 1999;62(4):447-454.
93. Chheda JN, Huber GW, Dumesic JA. Liquid-phase catalytic processing of biomass-derived oxygenated hydrocarbons to fuels and chemicals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2007;46(38):7164-7183.
94. Kuster BFM. 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (Hmf)-a review focusing on its manufacture. Starch-Starke. 1990;42(8):314-321.
95. Huber GW, Cortright RD, Dumesic JA. Renewable alkanes by aqueous-phase reforming of biomass-derived oxygenates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl. 2004;43(12):1549-1551.
96. Bond JQ, Alonso DM, Wang D, West RM, Dumesic JA. Integrated catalytic conversion of gamma-valerolactone to liquid alkenes for transportation fuels. Science. 2010;327(5969):1110-1114.
97. Huber GW, Iborra S, Corma A. Synthesis of transportation fuels from biomass: chemistry, catalysts, and engineering. Chem Rev. 2006;106(9):4044-4098.
98. Azadi P, Inderwildi OR, Farnood R, King DA. Liquid fuels, hydrogen and chemicals from lignin: a critical review. Renew Sustain Energ Rev. 2013;21:506-523.
99. Elliott DC, Peterson KL, Muzatko DS, Alderson EV, Hart TR, Neuenschwander GG. Effects of trace contaminants on catalytic processing of biomass-derived feedstocks. Appl Biochem Biotechnol. 2004;113:807-825.
100. Zakzeski J, Bruijnincx PC, Jongerius AL, Weckhuysen BM. The catalytic valorization of lignin for the production of renewable chemicals. Chem Rev. 2010;110(6):3552-3599.
101. Linger JG, Vardon DR, Guarnieri MT, Karp EM, Hunsinger GB, Franden MA, Johnson CW, Chupka G, Strathmann TJ, Pienkos PT, Beckham GT . Lignin valorization through integrated biological funneling and chemical catalysis. Proc Nat Acad Sci USA. 2014;111(33):12013-12018.
102. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Blanch HW. Survival of the fittest: an economic perspective on the production of novel biofuels. AIChE J. 2013;59(12):4454-4460.
103. Chisti Y. Biodiesel from microalgae. Biotechnol Adv. 2007;25(3):294-306.
104. Chisti Y. Biodiesel from microalgae beats bioethanol. Trends Biotechnol. 2008;26(3):126-131.
105. Brennan L, Owende P. Biofuels from microalgae-a review of technologies for production, processing, and extractions of biofuels and co-products. Renew Sustain Energ Rev. 2010;14(2):557-577.
106. Mata TM, Martins AA, Caetano NS. Microalgae for biodiesel production and other applications: a review. Renew Sustain Energ Rev. 2010;14(1):217-232.
107. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Chisti Y, Benemann JR, Lewis D. A matter of detail: assessing the true potential of microalgal biofuels. Biotechnol Bioeng. 2013;110(9):2317-2322.
108. Cox K, Renouf M, Dargan A, Turner C, Klein-Marcuschamer D. Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) of aviation biofuel from microalgae, Pongamia pinnata, and sugarcane molasses. Biofuel Bioprod Bior. 2014;8(4):579-593.
109. Lee AK, Lewis DM, Ashman PJ. Energy requirements and economic analysis of a full-scale microbial flocculation system for microalgal harvesting. Chem Eng Res Des. 2010;88(8A):988-996.
110. Slade R, Bauen A. Micro-algae cultivation for biofuels: cost, energy balance, environmental impacts and future prospects. Biomass Bioenergy. 2013;53:29-38.
111. van Beilen JB. Why microalgal biofuels won't save the internal combustion machine. Biofuel Bioprod Bior. 2010;4(1):41-52.
112. Wijffels RH. Potential of sponges and microalgae for marine biotechnology. Trends Biotechnol. 2008;26(1):26-31.
113. Dimitrov K. GreenFuel Technologies: A Case Study for Industrial Photosynthetic Energy Capture. Brisbane, Australia: Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, 2007.
114. Klein-Marcuschamer D, Turner C, Allen M, Gray P, Dietzgen RG, Gresshoff PM, Hankamer B, Heimann K, Scott PT, Stephens E, Speight R, Nielsen LK . Technoeconomic analysis of renewable aviation fuel from microalgae, Pongamia pinnata, and sugarcane. Biofuel Bioprod Bior. 2013;7(4):416-428.
115. Bullis K. Exxon Takes Algae Fuel Back to the Drawing Board. MIT Technology Review. Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2013.
116. Service RF. Biofuels ExxonMobil fuels venter's efforts to run vehicles on algae-based oil. Science. 2009;325(5939):379-379.
117. Babcock BA. RFS Compliance Costs and Incentives to Invest in Ethanol Infrastructure, CARD Policy Brief 13-PB 13. Center for Agricultural and Rural Development, 2013.
118. Oller S. Refiners to Obama: Stick to Lower Proposed RFS Volumes. CSP Daily News. October 16, 2014.
119. Voegele E. Economists Analyze Impact of Ethanol Mandates on E10, E85 Prices. Ethanol Producer Magazine, Grand Forks, ND, BBI International, 2014.
120. Rascoe A. U.S. Gas Station Constraints Complicate 2014 Biofuel Mandate: Officials. Washington, DC: Reuters, 2014.
121. Spatari S, Tomkins CD, Kammen D. Gigaton Throwdown: Biofuels. San Francisco, CA: The Gigaton Throwdown Initiative, 2009.
122. Schroeder J. Big Oil Denied Again. Domestic Fuel. Zimmcomm New Media, LLC, Cantonment, FL, 2014.
123. Lane J. Raizen, Iogen Commence Cellulosic Ethanol Production in Brazil. Biofuels Digest, Miami, FL, 2014.
124. Lane J. 10 Biggest Bioeconomy Blockbuster Stories of 2014 (Americas). Biofuels Digest, Miami, FL, 2014.