A framework for urban-woodland naturalization in Canada

Environmental Reviews

Volumn 23, Issue 3, 2015, Pages 321-336

  Toni, Sydney A ^a   Duinker, Peter N ^a  

^a DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

Author keywords

Management; Naturalization; Naturalness; Urban forest; Urban restoration

Indexed keywords

CONSERVATION; DECISION MAKING; ECOSYSTEMS; INTERNATIONAL LAW; MANAGEMENT; RESTORATION;

BIOLOGICAL TEACHING; ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION; HABITAT SUITABILITY; NATURALIZATION; NATURALNESS; NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS; URBAN FOREST MANAGEMENT; URBAN FORESTS;

FORESTRY;

FOREST MANAGEMENT; FORESTS; RESTORATION;

EID: 84934303566     PISSN: 11818700     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1139/er-2015-0003     Document Type: Review

References (150)

1. Adams, C.E., and Lindsey, K.J. 2011. Anthropogenic ecosystems: the influence of people on urban wildlife populations. In Urban ecology: patterns, processes, and applications. Edited by J. Niemelä. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 116-128.
2. Alberti M. 2005. The effects of urban patterns on ecosystem function. Int. Regional Sci. Rev. 28 (2): 168-192. 10.1177/0160017605275160.
3. Alberti M. 2010. Maintaining ecological integrity and sustaining ecosystem function in urban areas. Curr. Opin. Environ. Sust. 2 (3): 178-184. 10.1016/j.cosust.2010.07.002.
4. Angermeier P.L. 2000. The natural imperative for biological conservation. Conserv. Biol. 14 (2): 373-381. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98362.x.
5. Beauchamp V.B. Ghuznavi N. Koontz S.M. Roberts R.P. 2013. Edges, exotics and deer: the seed bank of a suburban secondary successional temperate deciduous forest. Appl. Veg. Sci. 16 (4): 571-584. 10.1111/avsc.12036.
6. Beier P. Noss R.F. 2008. Do habitat corridors provide connectivity? Conserv. Biol. 12 (6): 1241-1252. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1998.98036.x.
7. Beissinger S. Osborne D. 1982. Effects of urbanization on avian community organization. Condor, 84 (1): 75-83. 10.2307/1367825.
8. Bermúdez-Cuamatzin E. Ríos-Chelén A.A. Gil D. Garcia C.M. 2011. Experimental evidence for real-time song frequency shift in response to urban noise in a passerine bird. Biol. Lett. 7 (1): 36-38. 10.1098/rsbl.2010.0437. 20610421.
9. Bjorkman A. Vellend M. 2010. Defining historical baselines for conservation: ecological changes since European settlement on Vancouver Island, Canada. Conserv. Biol. 24 (6): 1559-1568. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2010.01550.x. 20586787.
10. Blair R. Launer A. 1997. Butterfly diversity and human land use: species assemblages along an urban gradient. Biol. Conserv. 80 (1): 113-125. 10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00056-0.
11. Botkin, D.B. 1990. Discordant harmonies. Oxford University Press, New York. pp. 241.
12. Brockerhoff E.G. Bain J. Kimberley M. Knížek M. 2006. Interception frequency of exotic bark and ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytinae) and relationship with establishment in New Zealand and worldwide. Can. J. For. Res. 36 (2): 289-298. 10.1139/x05-250.
13. Brumelis G. Jonsson B. Kouki J. Kuuluvanen T. Shorohova E. 2011. Forest naturalness in northern Europe: perspectives on processes, structures and species diversity. Silva Fenn. 45 (5): 807-821. 10.14214/sf.446.
14. Burley S. Robinson S.L. Lundholm J.T. 2008. Post-hurricane vegetation recovery in an urban forest. Landsc. Urban Plan. 85 (2): 111-122. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2007.10.003.
15. Burton P. Macdonald S. 2011. The restorative imperative: challenges, objectives and approaches to restoring naturalness in forests. Silva Fenn. 45 (5): 843-863. 10.14214/sf.74.
16. Catterall C.P. Cousin J.A. Piper S. Johnson G. 2010. Long-term dynamics of bird diversity in forest and suburb: decay, turnover or homogenization? Divers. Distrib. 16 (4): 559-570. 10.1111/j.1472-4642.2010.00665.x.
17. Chace J.F. Walsh J.J. 2006. Urban effects on native avifauna: a review. Landsc. Urban Plan. 74 (1): 46-69. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.08.007.
18. Chiesura A. 2004. The role of urban parks for the sustainable city. Landsc. Urban Plan. 68 (1): 129-138. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2003.08.003.
19. City of Toronto. 2002. High Park Woodland and Savannah Management Plan. Corporate Printing, Toronto, Ont.
20. Clewell, A.F., and Aronson, J. 2013. Ecological restoration: principles, values, and structure of an emerging profession. Island Press.
21. Cole D.N. 2000. Paradox of the primeval: ecological restoration in wilderness. Ecol. Res. 18 (2): 77-86.
22. Corbin J.D. Holl K.D. 2012. Applied nucleation as a forest restoration strategy. For. Ecol. Manage. 265: 37-46. 10.1016/j.foreco.2011.10.013.
23. Cristofolini F. Giordani P. Gottardini E. Modenesi P. 2008. The response of epiphytic lichens to air pollution and subsets of ecological predictors: a case study from the Italian Prealps. Environ. Pollut. 151 (2): 308-317. 10.1016/j.envpol.2007.06.040.
24. Crooks K. Suarez A. Bolger D. 2004. Avian assemblages along a gradient of urbanization in a highly fragmented landscape. Biol. Conserv. 115 (3): 451-462. 10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00162-9.
25. Crowe T. 1979. Lots of weeds: insular phytogeography of vacant urban lots. J. Biogeogr. 6 (2): 169-181. 10.2307/3038050.
26. Dallimer M. Irvine K.N. Skinner A.M.J. Davies Z.G. Rouquette J.R. Maltby L.L. Warren P.H. Armsworth P.R. Gaston K. 2012. Biodiversity and the feel-good factor: understanding associations between self-reported human well-being and species richness. BioScience, 62 (1): 47-55. 10.1525/bio.2012.62.1.9.
27. Davidson-Hunt I.J. 2003. Indigenous lands management, cultural landscapes and Anishinaabe people of Shoal Lake, Northwestern Ontario, Canada. Environments, 31 (1): 21-41.
28. Dickman C. 1987. Habitat fragmentation and vertebrate species richness in an urban environment. J. Appl. Ecol. 24: 337-351. 10.2307/2403879.
29. Diduck, J. 2012. Understanding local values related to the urban forest: connecting Winnipeg residents to their trees. M.NRM. thesis, Department of Earth, Environment, and Resources, The University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
30. Dominoni D.M. Carmona-Wagner E.O. Hofmann M. Kranstauber B. Partecke J. 2014. Individual-based measurements of light intensity provide new insights into the effects of artificial light at night on daily rhythms of urban-dwelling songbirds. J. Anim. Ecol. 83 (3): 681-692. 10.1111/1365-2656.12150.
31. Drayton B. Primack R.B. 1996. Plant species lost in an isolated conservation area in metropolitan Boston from 1894 to 1993. Conserv. Biol. 10 (1): 30-39. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10010030.x.
32. Eisenbeis, G. 2006. Artificial night lighting and insects: attraction of insects to streetlamps in a rural setting in Germany. In Ecological consequences of artificial night lighting. Edited by C. Rich and T. Longcore. Island Press, Washington, D.C. pp. 281-304.
33. Environment Canada 2004. An invasive alien species strategy for Canada. Environ. Can. CW66-394/2004E-PDF.
34. Esseen P.-A. Renhorn K.-E. 1998. Edge effects on an epiphytic lichen in fragmented forests. Conserv. Biol. 12 (6): 1307-1317. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.97346.x.
35. Evergreen. 2001. Urban naturalization in Canada: a policy and program guidebook. Evergreen, Toronto, Ont.
36. Faeth S.H. Bang C. Saari S. 2011. Urban biodiversity: patterns and mechanisms. Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 1223 (1): 69-81. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05925.x. 21449966.
37. Fischer A. Selge S. van der Wal R. Larson B.M.H. 2014. The public and professionals reason similarly about the management of non-native invasive species: a quantitative investigation of the relationship between beliefs and attitudes. PLoS ONE, 9 (8): e105495. 10.1371/journal.pone.0105495.
38. Fontana S. Sattler T. Bontadina F. Moretti M. 2011. How to manage the urban green to improve bird diversity and community structure. Landsc. Urban Plan. 101 (3): 278-285. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.033.
39. Francis C.D. Ortega C.P. Cruz A. 2009. Noise pollution changes avian communities and species interactions. Curr. Biol. 19 (16): 1415-1419. 10.1016/j.cub.2009.06.052. 19631542.
40. Fraver S. 1994. Vegetation responses along edge-to-interior gradients in the mixed hardwood forests of the Roanoke River Basin, North Carolina. Conserv. Biol. 8 (3): 822-832. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08030822.x.
41. Fuller R.A. Warren P.H. Gaston K.J. 2007. Daytime noise predicts nocturnal singing in urban robins. Biol. Lett. 3 (4): 368-370. 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0134.
42. Fure A. 2006. Bats and lighting. Lond. Nat. 85: 1-20.
43. Gibbons P. Briggs S.V. Ayers D.A. Doyle S. Seddon J. McElhinny C. Jones N. Sims R. Doody J.S. 2008. Rapidly quantifying reference conditions in modified landscapes. Biol. Conserv. 141 (10): 2483-2493. 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.009.
44. Gobster, P.H. 2012. Alternative approaches to urban natural areas restoration: integrating social and ecological goals. In Forested landscape restoration: integrating natural and social sciences. Edited by J. Stanturf, D. Lamb, and P. Madsen. Springer the Netherlands, Dordrecht. pp. 155-176.
45. Gobster P.H. Nassauer J.I. Daniel T.C. Fry G. 2007. The shared landscape: what does aesthetics have to do with ecology? Landsc. Ecol. 22 (7): 959-972. 10.1007/s10980-007-9110-x.
46. Godefroid S. Koedam N. 2004. The impact of forest paths upon adjacent vegetation: effects of the path surfacing material on the species composition and soil compaction. Biol. Conserv. 119 (3): 405-419. 10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.003.
47. Grant, B.W., Middendorf, G., Colgan, M.J., Ahmad, H., and Vogel, M.B. 2011. Ecology of urban amphibians and reptiles: urbanophiles, urbanophores, and the urbanoblivious. In Urban ecology: patterns, processes, and applications. Edited by J. Niemelä. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 167-178.
48. Halfwerk W. Bot S. Buikx J. van der Velde M. Komdeur J. ten Cate C. Slabbekoorn H. 2011. Low-frequency songs lose their potency in noisy urban conditions. P. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 108 (35): 14549-14554. 10.1073/pnas.1109091108.
49. Hallett, J. 2007. The city in the forest: forest naturalization strategies for a Winnipeg community. M.LA. thesis, Department of Landscape Architecture, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man.
50. Hamberg L. Lehvävirta S. Kotze D.J. 2009. Forest edge structure as a shaping factor of understorey vegetation in urban forests in Finland. For. Ecol. Manage. 257 (2): 712-722. 10.1016/j.foreco.2008.10.003.
51. Higgs E.S. 1997. What is good ecological restoration? Conserv. Biol. 11 (2): 338-348. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95311.x.
52. Higgs, E.S. 2003. Nature by design: people, natural process, and ecological restoration. MIT Press, Cambridge.
53. Hochuli, D.F., Christie, F.J., and Lomov, B. 2009. Invertebrate biodiversity in urban landscapes: assessing remnant habitat and its restoration. In Ecology of cities and towns: a comparative approach. Edited by M.J. McDonnell, A.K. Hahs, and J.H. Breuste. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 215-232.
54. Hope D. Gries C. Zhu W. Fagan W. Redman C. Grimm N. Nelson A.L. Martin C. Kinzig A. 2003. Socioeconomics drive urban plant diversity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 100 (15): 8788-8792. 10.1073/pnas.1537557100. 12847293.
55. Hunter M. 1996. Benchmarks for managing ecosystems: are human activities natural? Conserv. Biol. 10 (3): 695-697. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10030695.x.
56. Jordan N.R. Larson D.L. Huerd S.C. 2008. Soil modification by invasive plants: effects on native and invasive species of mixed-grass prairies. Biol. Invasions, 10 (2): 177-190. 10.1007/s10530-007-9121-1.
57. Jorgensen A. Hitchmough J. Calvert T. 2002. Woodland spaces and edges: their impact on perception of safety and preference. Landsc. Urban Plan. 60 (3): 135-150. 10.1016/S0169-2046(02)00052-X.
58. Kempenaers B. Borgström P. Loës P. Schlicht E. Valcu M. 2010. Artificial night lighting affects dawn song, extra-pair siring success, and lay date in songbirds. Curr. Biol. 20 (19): 1735-1739. 10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.028. 20850324.
59. Kotze D.J. Lehvävirta S. Koivula M. OHara R.B. Spence J.R. 2012. Effects of habitat edges and trampling on the distribution of ground beetles (Coleoptera, Carabidae) in urban forests. J. Insec. Conserv. 16 (6): 883-897. 10.1007/s10841-012-9475-2.
60. Kowarik, I. 2005. Wild urban woodlands: towards a conceptual framework. In Wild urban woodlands. Edited by I. Kowarik and S. Körner. Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Germany. pp. 1-32.
61. LaPaix R. Freedman B. 2010. Vegetation structure and composition within urban parks of Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia, Canada. Landsc. Urban Plan. 98 (2): 124-135. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.07.019.
62. LaPaix R. Freedman B. Patriquin D. 2009. Ground vegetation as an indicator of ecological integrity. Environ. Rev. 17 (. NA): 249-265. 10.1139/A09-012.
63. LaPaix R. Harper K. Freedman B. 2012. Patterns of exotic plants in relation to anthropogenic edges within urban forest remnants. Appl. Veg. Sci. 15: 525-535. 10.1111/j.1654-109X.2012.01195.x.
64. Le Roux D.S. Ikin K. Lindenmayer D.B. Blanchard W. Manning A.D. Gibbons P. 2014. Reduced availability of habitat structures in urban landscapes: implications for policy and practice. Landsc. Urban Plan. 125: 57-64. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.015.
65. Lehvävirta S. Rita H. 2002. Natural regeneration of trees in urban woodlands. J. Veg. Sci. 13 (1): 57-66. 10.1111/j.1654-1103.2002.tb02023.x.
66. Liira J. Sepp T. Parrest O. 2007. The forest structure and ecosystem quality in conditions of anthropogenic disturbance along productivity gradient. For. Ecol. Manage. 250 (1-2): 34-46. 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.03.007.
67. Lindemann-Matthies P. Marty T. 2013. Does ecological gardening increase species richness and aesthetic quality of a garden? Biol. Conserv. 159 (3): 37-44. 10.1016/j.biocon.2012.12.011.
68. Lindenmayer D.B. Laurance W.F. Franklin J.F. 2012. Global decline in large old trees. Science, 338 (6112): 1305-1306. 10.1126/science.1231070. 23224548.
69. Lizée M.-H. Mauffrey J.-F. Tatoni T. Deschamps-Cottin M. 2011. Monitoring urban environments on the basis of biological traits. Ecol. Indic. 11 (2): 353-361. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2010.06.003.
70. Llop E. Pinho P. Matos P. Pereira M.J. Branquinho C. 2012. The use of lichen functional groups as indicators of air quality in a Mediterranean urban environment. Ecol. Indic. 13 (1): 215-221. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2011.06.005.
71. Luken, J.O. 1990. Directing ecological succession. Chapman and Hall, New York.
72. Lundholm J.T. Richardson P.J. 2010. Habitat analogues for reconciliation ecology in urban and industrial environments. J. App. Ecol. 47 (5): 966-975. 10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01857.x.
73. Luther D.A. Derryberry E.P. 2012. Birdsongs keep pace with city life: changes in song over time in an urban songbird affects communication. Anim. Behav. 83 (4): 1059-1066. 10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.01.034.
74. MacFarlane D.W. Meyer S.P. 2005. Characteristics and distribution of potential ash tree hosts for emerald ash borer. For. Ecol. Manage. 213 (1-3): 15-24. 10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.013.
75. Machado A. 2004. An index of naturalness. J. Nat. Conserv. 12 (2): 95-110. 10.1016/j.jnc.2003.12.002.
76. Mascaro, J., Harris, J.A., Lach, L., Thompson, A., Perring, M.P., Richardson, D.M., and Ellis, E.C. 2013. Origins of the novel ecosystem concept. In Novel ecosystems: intervening in the new ecological world order. Edited by R.J. Hobbs, E.S. Higgs, and C.M. Hall. John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., West Sussex. pp. 45-57.
77. McCune B. 2000. Lichen communities as indicators of forest health. Bryologist, 103 (2): 253-256.
78. McDonnell M.J. Pickett S.T.A. 1990. Ecosystem structure and function along urban-rural gradients: an unexploited opportunity for ecology. Ecology, 71 (4): 1232-1237. 10.2307/1938259.
79. McDonnell M.J. Pickett S.T.A. Groffman P. Bohlen P. Pouyat R.V. Zipperer W.C. Parmelee R.W. Carreiro M.M. Medley K. 1997. Ecosystem processes along an urban-to-rural gradient. Urban Ecosyst. 1 (1): 21-36. 10.1023/A:1014359024275.
80. McElhinny C. Gibbons P. Brack C. Bauhus J. 2005. Forest and woodland stand structural complexity: its definition and measurement. For. Ecol. Manage. 218 (1-3): 1-24. 10.1016/j.foreco.2005.08.034.
81. McIntyre N. 2000. Ecology of urban arthropods: a review and a call to action. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 93 (4): 825-835. 10.1603/0013-8746(2000)093[0825:EOUAAR]2.0.CO;2.
82. McIntyre, N.E., and Rango, J.J. 2009. Arthropods in urban ecosystems: community patterns as functions of anthropogenic land use. In Ecology of cities and towns: a comparative approach. Edited by M.J. McDonnell, A.K. Hahs, and J.H. Breuste. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. pp. 233-242.
83. McKinney M.L. 2002. Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation. BioScience, 52 (10): 883-890. 10.1641/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2.
84. McKinney M.L. 2006. Urbanization as a major cause of biotic homogenization. Biol. Conserv. 127 (3): 247-260. 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005.
85. McKinney M. 2008. Effects of urbanization on species richness: a review of plants and animals. Urban Ecosyst. 11 (2): 161-176. 10.1007/s11252-007-0045-4.
86. McRoberts R.E. Winter S. Chirici G. Lapoint E. 2012. Assessing forest naturalness. For. Sci. 58 (3): 294-309. 10.5849/forsci.10-075.
87. Melles S. Glenn S. Martin K. 2003. Urban bird diversity and landscape complexity: species-environment associations along a multiscale habitat gradient. Conserv. Ecol. 7 (1): 5-26.
88. Miles, J. 1979. Vegetation dynamics. University Press, Cambridge.
89. Miller J.R. 2006. Restoration, reconciliation, and reconnecting with nature nearby. Biol. Conserv. 127 (3): 356-361. 10.1016/j.biocon.2005.07.021.
90. Mills G. Dunning J. Jr. Bates J. 1989. Effects of urbanization on breeding bird community structure in southwestern desert habitats. Condor, 91 (2): 416-428. 10.2307/1368320.
91. Millward A.A. Paudel K. Briggs S.E. 2011. Naturalization as a strategy for improving soil physical characteristics in a forested urban park. Urban Ecosyst. 14 (2): 261-278. 10.1007/s11252-010-0153-4.
92. Mitchell J. Beck R. 1992. Free-ranging domestic cat predation on native vertebrates in rural and urban Virginia. Va. J. Sci. 43 (1B): 197-207.
93. Moffatt S. McLachlan S. 2003. Effects of land use disturbance on seed banks of riparian forests in southern Manitoba. Ecoscience, 10 (3): 361-369.
94. Moffatt S. McLachlan S. 2004. Understorey indicators of disturbance for riparian forests along an urban-rural gradient in Manitoba. Ecol. Indic. 4 (1): 1-16. 10.1016/j.ecolind.2003.08.002.
95. Moffatt S. McLachlan S. Kenkel N. 2004. Impacts of land use on riparian forest along an urban-rural gradient in southern Manitoba. Plant Ecol. 174 (1): 119-135. 10.1023/B:VEGE.0000046055.27285.fd.
96. Mooney H.A. Cleland E.E. 2001. The evolutionary impact of invasive species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 98 (10): 5446-5451. 10.1073/pnas.091093398. 11344292.
97. Nash, T.H., III. (Editor). 2008. Lichen sensitivity to air pollution. In Lichen biology. Cambridge University Press, New York. pp. 301-316.
98. Neily, P., Keys, K., Quigley, E., Basquill, S., and Stewart, B. 2013. Forest ecosystem classification for Nova Scotia (2010). Nova Scotia Dept. of Natural Resources, Report FOR 2013-1. pp. 452.
99. Nemeth E. Brumm H. 2010. Birds and anthropogenic noise: are urban songs adaptive? Am. Nat. 176 (4): 465-475. 10.1086/656275. 20712517.
100. Newbound M. McCarthy M.A. Lebel T. 2010. Fungi and the urban environment: a review. Landsc. Urban Plan. 96 (3): 138-145. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2010.04.005.
101. Niemelä J. 1999. Ecology and urban planning. Biodivers. Conserv. 8 (1): 119-131. 10.1023/A:1008817325994.
102. Niemelä P. Mattson W.J. 1996. Invasion of North American forests by European phytophagous insects. BioScience, 46 (10): 741-753. 10.2307/1312850.
103. Noss R.F. 1990. Indicators for monitoring biodiversity: a hierarchical approach. Conserv. Biol. 4 (4): 355-364. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00309.x.
104. Noss, R. 2004. Can urban areas have ecological integrity? In Proceedings of the 4th International Urban Wildlife Symposium, Tuscon, Ariz., 1-5 May 1999. Edited by W.W. Shaw, L.K. Harris, and L. Vandruff. University of Arizona, Tuscon, Ariz. pp. 3-8.
105. Nowak D.J. 1993. Atmospheric carbon reduction by urban trees. J. Environ. Manage. 37 (3): 207-217. 10.1006/jema.1993.1017.
106. Nowak D.J. Rowntree R.A. 1990. History and range of Norway maple. J. Arborcult. 16 (11): 291-296.
107. Oldfield E.E. Warren R.J. Felson A.J. Bradford M.A. 2013. Challenges and future directions in urban afforestation. J. App. Ecol. 50 (5): 1169-1177. 10.1111/1365-2664.12124.
108. Ordóñez C. Duinker P.N. 2013. An analysis of urban forest management plans in Canada: implications for urban forest management. Landsc. Urban Plan. 116: 36-47. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2013.04.007.
109. Özgüner H. Kendle A.D. 2006. Public attitudes towards naturalistic versus designed landscapes in the city of Sheffield (UK). Landsc. Urban Plan. 74 (2): 139-157. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.10.003.
110. Palmer M.A. Ambrose R.F. Poff N.L. 1997. Ecological theory and community restoration ecology. Restor. Ecol. 5 (4): 291-300. 10.1046/j.1526-100X.1997.00543.x.
111. Parkes D. Newell G. Cheal D. 2003. Assessing the quality of native vegetation: the habitat hectares approach. Ecol. Manage. Restor. 4 (Suppl.): S29-S38. 10.1046/j.1442-8903.4.s.4.x.
112. Parsons H. French K. Major R. 2003. The influence of remnant bushland on the composition of suburban bird assemblages in Australia. Landsc. Urban Plan. 66 (1): 43-56. 10.1016/S0169-2046(03)00094-X.
113. Pavao-Zuckerman M. 2008. The nature of urban soils and their role in ecological restoration in cities. Restor. Ecol. 16 (4): 642-649. 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2008.00486.x.
114. Peckham S.C. Duinker P.N. Ordóñez C. 2013. Urban forest values in Canada: views of citizens in Calgary and Halifax. Urban For. Urban Green. 12 (2): 154-162. 10.1016/j.ufug.2013.01.001.
115. Petit S. Watkins C. 2003. Pollarding trees: changing attitudes to a traditional land management practice in Britain 1600-1900. Rural Hist. 14 (2): 157-176. 10.1017/S0956793303001018.
116. Pickett S. Cadenasso M. Nilon C.H. Zipperer W.C. Costanza R. Grove J. 2001. Urban ecological systems: linking terrestrial ecological, physical, and socioeconomic components of metropolitan areas. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 32: 127-157. 10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.32.081501.114012.
117. Poland T.M. McCullough D.G. 2006. Emerald ash borer: invasion of the urban forest and the threat to North Americas ash resource. J. For. 104 (3): 118-124.
118. Ranta P. 2001. Changes in urban lichen diversity after a fall in sulphur dioxide levels in the city of Tampere, SW Finland. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 38: 295-304.
119. Raupp M.J. Shrewsbury P.M. Herms D.A. 2010. Ecology of herbivorous arthropods in urban landscapes. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 55: 19-38. 10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085351.
120. Rebele F. 1992. Colonization and early succession on anthropogenic soils. J. Veg. Sci. 3 (2): 201-208. 10.2307/3235680.
121. Rheindt F.E. 2003. The impact of roads on birds: does song frequency play a role in determining susceptibility to noise pollution? J. Ornithol. 144 (3): 295-306. 10.1046/j.1439-0361.2003.03004.x.
122. Roberge J. Angelstam P. Villard M. 2008. Specialised woodpeckers and naturalness in hemiboreal forests: deriving quantitative targets for conservation planning. Biol. Conserv. 141 (4): 997-1012. 10.1016/j.biocon.2008.01.010.
123. Robinson G.R. Handel S.N. 1993. Forest restoration on a closed landfill: rapid addition of new species by bird dispersal. Conserv. Biol. 7 (2): 271-279. 10.1046/j.1523-1739.1993.07020271.x.
124. Robinson G.R. Handel S.N. 2000. Directing spatial patterns of recruitment during an experimental urban woodland reclamation. Ecol. Appl. 10 (1): 174-188. 10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0174:DSPORD]2.0.CO;2.
125. Ruiz-Jaén M.C. Aide T.M. 2006. An integrated approach for measuring urban forest restoration success. Urban For. Urban Green. 4 (2): 55-68. 10.1016/j.ufug.2005.09.002.
126. Sandström U.G. Angelstam P. Mikusiński G. 2006. Ecological diversity of birds in relation to the structure of urban green space. Landsc. Urban Plan. 77 (1-2): 39-53. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2005.01.004.
127. Schnitzler A. Borlea F. 1998. Lessons from natural forests as keys for sustainable management and improvement of naturalness in managed broadleaved forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 109 (1-3): 293-303. 10.1016/S0378-1127(98)00263-1.
128. Seaward, M.R.D. 2008. Environmental role of lichens. In Lichen biology. Edited by T.H. Nash, III. Cambridge University Press, New York. pp. 276-300.
129. Sharov A.A. Leonard D. Liebhold A.M. Roberts E.A. Dickerson W. 2002. "Slow the spread": a national program to contain the gypsy moth. J. For. 100 (5): 30-35.
130. Shochat E. Lerman S.B. Anderies J.M. Warren P.S. Faeth S.H. Nilon C.H. 2010. Invasion, competition, and biodiversity loss in urban ecosystems. Bioscience, 60 (3): 199-208. 10.1525/bio.2010.60.3.6.
131. Sinclair A.J. Diduck J. Duinker P.N. 2014. Elicitation of urban forest values from residents of Winnipeg, Canada. Can. J. For. Res. 44 (8): 922-930. 10.1139/cjfr-2014-0016.
132. Spurr, S.H., and Barnes, B.V. 1980. Forest ecology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York.
133. Stone E.L. Jones G. Harris S. 2009. Street lighting disturbs commuting bats. Curr. Biol. 19 (13): 1123-1127. 10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.058. 19540116.
134. Sullivan J.J. Meurk C. Whaley K.J. Simcock R. 2009. Restoring native ecosystems in urban Auckland: urban soils, isolation, and weeds as impediments to forest establishment. N.Z. J. Ecol. 33 (1): 60-71.
135. Tallamy D. 2004. Do alien plants reduce insect biomass? Conserv. Biol. 18 (6): 1689-1692. 10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00512.x.
136. Thompson K. McCarthy M. 2008. Traits of British alien and native urban plants. J. Ecol. 96 (5): 853-859. 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01383.x.
137. Toni, S.A., and Duinker, P.N. 2015. Applying a naturalness framework to urban forest management: experiences in Halifax and Winnipeg, Canada. [In preparation].
138. Turner M.G. 1989. Landscape ecology: the effect of pattern on process. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 20: 171-197. 10.1146/annurev.es.20.110189.001131.
139. Turner K. Lefler L. Freedman B. 2005. Plant communities of selected urbanized areas of Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. Landsc. Urban Plan. 71 (2-4): 191-206. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2004.03.003.
140. Tyrväinen L. Mäkinen K. Schipperijn J. 2007. Tools for mapping social values of urban woodlands and other green areas. Landsc. Urban Plan. 79 (1): 5-19. 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.03.003.
141. Uotila A. Kouki J. Kontkanen H. Pulkkinen P. 2002. Assessing the naturalness of boreal forests in eastern Fennoscandia. For. Ecol. Manage. 161 (1-3): 257-277. 10.1016/S0378-1127(01)00496-0.
142. van den Berg A.E. Hartig T. Staats H. 2007. Preference for nature in urbanized societies: stress, restoration, and the pursuit of sustainability. J. Soc. Issues, 63 (1): 79-96. 10.1111/j.1540-4560.2007.00497.x.
143. Venter O. Brodeur N.N. Nemiroff L. Belland B. Dolinsek I.J. Grant J.W.A. 2006. Threats to endangered species in Canada. Bioscience, 56 (11): 903-910. 10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[903:TTESIC]2.0.CO;2.
144. Werner P. 2011. The ecology of urban areas and their functions for species diversity. Landsc. Ecol. Eng. 7 (2): 231-240. 10.1007/s11355-011-0153-4.
145. Wilcove D.S. Rothstein D. Dubow J. Phillips A. Losos E. 1998. Quantifying threats to imperiled species in the United States. Bioscience, 48 (8): 607-615. 10.2307/1313420.
146. Williams N.S.G. Schwartz M.W. Vesk P.A. McCarthy M.A. Hahs A.K. Clemants S.E. Corlett R.T. Duncan R.P. Norton B.A. Thompson K. McDonnell M.J. 2009. A conceptual framework for predicting the effects of urban environments on floras. J. Ecol. 97 (1): 4-9. 10.1111/j.1365-2745.2008.01460.x.
147. Winter S. Möller G.C. 2008. Microhabitats in lowland beech forests as monitoring tool for nature conservation. For. Ecol. Manage. 255 (3-4): 1251-1261. 10.1016/j.foreco.2007.10.029.
148. Winter S. Flade M. Schumacher H. Kerstan E. Moller G. 2005. The importance of near natural stand structures for the biocoenosis of lowland beech forests. For. Snow Landsc. Res. 79 (1/2): 127-144.
149. Winter S. Fischer H.S. Fischer A. 2010. Relative quantitative reference approach for naturalness assessments of forests. For. Ecol. Manage. 259 (8): 1624-1632. 10.1016/j.foreco.2010.01.040.
150. Zhu K. Woodall C.W. Clark J.S. 2012. Failure to migrate: lack of tree range expansion in response to climate change. Global Change Biol. 18 (3): 1042-1052. 10.1111/j.1365-2486.2011.02571.x.