Vitamin D and skeletal health in infancy and childhood

Osteoporosis International

Volumn 25, Issue 12, 2014, Pages 2673-2684

  Moon, R J ^a,b   Harvey, N C ^a,b   Davies, J H ^b   Cooper, C ^a,b,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL SOUTHAMPTON NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

^c UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Bone mineral density; Childhood; Epidemiology; Fracture; Osteoporosis; Rickets; Vitamin D

Indexed keywords

25-HYDROXYVITAMIN D; VITAMIN D;

ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; BLOOD; BONE DENSITY; CHILD; COMPLICATION; HUMAN; INFANT; OSTEOPOROTIC FRACTURES; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PHYSIOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; RICKETS; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

BONE DENSITY; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; INFANT; OSTEOPOROTIC FRACTURES; RICKETS; VITAMIN D; VITAMIN D DEFICIENCY;

EID: 84931261273     PISSN: 0937941X     EISSN: 14332965     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00198-014-2783-5     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Bilinski K, Boyages S (2013) Evidence of overtesting for vitamin D in Australia: an analysis of 4.5 years of Medicare Benefits Schedule (MBS) data. BMJ Open 3(6). doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002955
2. Genzen JR, Gosselin JT, Wilson TC, Racila E, Krasowski MD (2013) Analysis of vitamin D status at two academic medical centers and a national reference laboratory: result patterns vary by age, gender, season, and patient location. BMC Endocr Disord 13(1):52. doi:10.1186/1472-6823-13-52
3. Ahmed SF, Franey C, McDevitt H, Somerville L, Butler S, Galloway P, Reynolds L, Shaikh MG, Wallace AM (2011) Recent trends and clinical features of childhood vitamin D deficiency presenting to a children’s hospital in Glasgow. Arch Dis Child 96(7):694–696. doi:10.1136/adc.2009.173195
4. Robinson PD, Hogler W, Craig ME, Verge CF, Walker JL, Piper AC, Woodhead HJ, Cowell CT, Ambler GR (2006) The re-emerging burden of rickets: a decade of experience from Sydney. Arch Dis Child 91(7):564–568. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.069575
5. Thacher TD, Fischer PR, Tebben PJ, Singh RJ, Cha SS, Maxson JA, Yawn BP (2013) Increasing incidence of nutritional rickets: a population-based study in Olmsted County, Minnesota. Mayo Clin Proc 88(2):176–183. doi:10.1016/j.mayocp.2012.10.018
6. Lazol JP, Cakan N, Kamat D (2008) 10-year case review of nutritional rickets in Children’s Hospital of Michigan. Clin Pediatr (Phila) 47(4):379–384. doi:10.1177/0009922807311397
7. Beck-Nielsen SS, Brock-Jacobsen B, Gram J, Brixen K, Jensen TK (2009) Incidence and prevalence of nutritional and hereditary rickets in southern Denmark. Eur J Endocrinol 160(3):491–497. doi:10.1530/EJE-08-0818
8. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Willett WC, Orav EJ, Lips P, Meunier PJ, Lyons RA, Flicker L, Wark J, Jackson RD, Cauley JA, Meyer HE, Pfeifer M, Sanders KM, Stahelin HB, Theiler R, Dawson-Hughes B (2012) A pooled analysis of vitamin D dose requirements for fracture prevention. N Engl J Med 367(1):40–49. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1109617
9. Dimitri P, Bishop N, Walsh JS, Eastell R (2012) Obesity is a risk factor for fracture in children but is protective against fracture in adults: a paradox. Bone 50(2):457–466. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2011.05.011
10. Shore RM, Chesney RW (2013) Rickets: part I. Pediatr Radiol 43(2):140–151. doi:10.1007/s00247-012-2532-x
11. Shore RM, Chesney RW (2013) Rickets: part II. Pediatr Radiol 43(2):152–172. doi:10.1007/s00247-012-2536-6
12. Elder CJ, Bishop NJ (2014) Rickets. Lancet 383(9929):1665–1676. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)61650-5
13. Absoud M, Cummins C, Lim MJ, Wassmer E, Shaw N (2011) Prevalence and predictors of vitamin D insufficiency in children: a Great Britain population based study. PLoS One 6(7):e22179. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0022179
14. Tolppanen AM, Fraser A, Fraser WD, Lawlor DA (2012) Risk factors for variation in 25-hydroxyvitamin D(3) and D(2) concentrations and vitamin D deficiency in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(4):1202–1210. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-2516
15. Turer CB, Lin H, Flores G (2013) Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among overweight and obese US children. Pediatrics 131(1):e152–e161. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-1711
16. Davies PS, Bates CJ, Cole TJ, Prentice A, Clarke PC (1999) Vitamin D: seasonal and regional differences in preschool children in Great Britain. Eur J Clin Nutr 53(3):195–198
17. Das G, Crocombe S, McGrath M, Berry JL, Mughal MZ (2006) Hypovitaminosis D among healthy adolescent girls attending an inner city school. Arch Dis Child 91(7):569–572. doi:10.1136/adc.2005.077974
18. Tiosano D, Hochberg Z (2009) Hypophosphatemia: the common denominator of all rickets. J Bone Miner Metab 27(4):392–401. doi:10.1007/s00774-009-0079-1
19. Mughal MZ (2011) Rickets. Curr Osteoporos Rep 9(4):291–299. doi:10.1007/s11914-011-0081-0
20. Callaghan AL, Moy RJ, Booth IW, Debelle G, Shaw NJ (2006) Incidence of symptomatic vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child 91(7):606–607. doi:10.1136/adc.2006.095075
21. Munns CF, Simm PJ, Rodda CP, Garnett SP, Zacharin MR, Ward LM, Geddes J, Cherian S, Zurynski Y, Cowell CT (2012) Incidence of vitamin D deficiency rickets among Australian children: an Australian Paediatric Surveillance Unit study. Med J Aust 196(7):466–468
22. Ward LM, Gaboury I, Ladhani M, Zlotkin S (2007) Vitamin D-deficiency rickets among children in Canada. CMAJ 177(2):161–166. doi:10.1503/cmaj.061377
23. Holick MF, Binkley NC, Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Gordon CM, Hanley DA, Heaney RP, Murad MH, Weaver CM (2011) Evaluation, treatment, and prevention of vitamin D deficiency: an Endocrine Society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(7):1911–1930. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-0385
24. Dawson-Hughes B, Mithal A, Bonjour JP, Boonen S, Burckhardt P, Fuleihan GE, Josse RG, Lips P, Morales-Torres J, Yoshimura N (2010) IOF position statement: vitamin D recommendations for older adults. Osteoporos Int 21(7):1151–1154. doi:10.1007/s00198-010-1285-3
25. Arundel P, Ahmed SF, Allgrove J, Bishop NJ, Burren CP, Jacobs B, Mughal MZ, Offiah AC, Shaw NJ (2012) British Paediatric and Adolescent Bone Group’s position statement on vitamin D deficiency. BMJ 345:e8182
26. Canadian Paediatric Society (2007) Vitamin D supplementation: recommendations for Canadian mothers and infants. Paediatr Child Health 12(7):583–598
27. Sai AJ, Walters RW, Fang X, Gallagher JC (2011) Relationship between vitamin D, parathyroid hormone, and bone health. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(3):E436–E446. doi:10.1210/jc.2010-1886
28. Atapattu N, Shaw N, Hogler W (2013) Relationship between serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D and parathyroid hormone in the search for a biochemical definition of vitamin D deficiency in children. Pediatr Res 74(5):552–556. doi:10.1038/pr.2013.139
29. Houghton LA, Szymlek-Gay EA, Gray AR, Ferguson EL, Deng X, Heath AL (2010) Predictors of vitamin D status and its association with parathyroid hormone in young New Zealand children. Am J Clin Nutr 92(1):69–76. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.29055
30. Razzaghy-Azar M, Shakiba M (2010) Assessment of vitamin D status in healthy children and adolescents living in Tehran and its relation to iPTH, gender, weight and height. Ann Hum Biol 37(5):692–701. doi:10.3109/03014460903527348
31. Gordon CM, DePeter KC, Feldman HA, Grace E, Emans SJ (2004) Prevalence of vitamin D deficiency among healthy adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 158(6):531–537. doi:10.1001/archpedi.158.6.531
32. Liang L, Chantry C, Styne DM, Stephensen CB (2010) Prevalence and risk factors for vitamin D deficiency among healthy infants and young children in Sacramento, California. Eur J Pediatr 169(11):1337–1344. doi:10.1007/s00431-010-1226-3
33. Outila TA, Karkkainen MU, Lamberg-Allardt CJ (2001) Vitamin D status affects serum parathyroid hormone concentrations during winter in female adolescents: associations with forearm bone mineral density. Am J Clin Nutr 74(2):206–210
34. Hill KM, McCabe GP, McCabe LD, Gordon CM, Abrams SA, Weaver CM (2010) An inflection point of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D for maximal suppression of parathyroid hormone is not evident from multi-site pooled data in children and adolescents. J Nutr 140(11):1983–1988. doi:10.3945/jn.110.124966
35. Aggarwal V, Seth A, Aneja S, Sharma B, Sonkar P, Singh S, Marwaha RK (2012) Role of calcium deficiency in development of nutritional rickets in Indian children: a case control study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 97(10):3461–3466. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-3120
36. Cooper C, Dennison EM, Leufkens HG, Bishop N, van Staa TP (2004) Epidemiology of childhood fractures in Britain: a study using the general practice research database. J Bone Miner Res 19(12):1976–1981. doi:10.1359/JBMR.040902
37. Jones IE, Williams SM, Dow N, Goulding A (2002) How many children remain fracture-free during growth? A longitudinal study of children and adolescents participating in the Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study. Osteoporos Int 13(12):990–995. doi:10.1007/s001980200137
38. Chevalley T, Bonjour JP, Rietbergen B, Ferrari S, Rizzoli R (2011) Fractures during childhood and adolescence in healthy boys: relation with bone mass, microstructure, and strength. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 96(10):3134–3142. doi:10.1210/jc.2011-1445
39. Goulding A, Grant AM, Williams SM (2005) Bone and body composition of children and adolescents with repeated forearm fractures. J Bone Miner Res 20(12):2090–2096. doi:10.1359/JBMR.050820
40. Farr JN, Tomas R, Chen Z, Lisse JR, Lohman TG, Going SB (2011) Lower trabecular volumetric BMD at metaphyseal regions of weight-bearing bones is associated with prior fracture in young girls. J Bone Miner Res 26(2):380–387. doi:10.1002/jbmr.218
41. Ryan LM, Teach SJ, Singer SA, Wood R, Freishtat R, Wright JL, McCarter R, Tosi L, Chamberlain JM (2012) Bone mineral density and vitamin D status among African American children with forearm fractures. Pediatrics 130(3):e553–e560. doi:10.1542/peds.2012-0134
42. Manias K, McCabe D, Bishop N (2006) Fractures and recurrent fractures in children; varying effects of environmental factors as well as bone size and mass. Bone 39(3):652–657. doi:10.1016/j.bone.2006.03.018
43. Mylott BM, Kump T, Bolton ML, Greenbaum LA (2004) Rickets in the dairy state. WMJ 103(5):84–87
44. Blok BH, Grant CC, McNeil AR, Reid IR (2000) Characteristics of children with florid vitamin D deficient rickets in the Auckland region in 1998. N Z Med J 113(1117):374–376
45. Al-Atawi MS, Al-Alwan IA, Al-Mutair AN, Tamim HM, Al-Jurayyan NA (2009) Epidemiology of nutritional rickets in children. Saudi J Kidney Dis Transpl 20(2):260–265
46. Al-Jurayyan NA, El-Desouki ME, Al-Herbish AS, Al-Mazyad AS, Al-Qhtani MM (2002) Nutritional rickets and osteomalacia in school children and adolescents. Saudi Med J 23(2):182–185
47. Beck-Nielsen SS, Jensen TK, Gram J, Brixen K, Brock-Jacobsen B (2009) Nutritional rickets in Denmark: a retrospective review of children’s medical records from 1985 to 2005. Eur J Pediatr 168(8):941–949. doi:10.1007/s00431-008-0864-1
48. Miyako K, Kinjo S, Kohno H (2005) Vitamin D deficiency rickets caused by improper lifestyle in Japanese children. Pediatr Int 47(2):142–146. doi:10.1111/j.1442-200x.2005.02041.x
49. Chapman T, Sugar N, Done S, Marasigan J, Wambold N, Feldman K (2010) Fractures in infants and toddlers with rickets. Pediatr Radiol 40(7):1184–1189. doi:10.1007/s00247-009-1470-8
50. Ladhani S, Srinivasan L, Buchanan C, Allgrove J (2004) Presentation of vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child 89(8):781–784. doi:10.1136/adc.2003.031385
51. Pedersen P, Michaelsen KF, Molgaard C (2003) Children with nutritional rickets referred to hospitals in Copenhagen during a 10-year period. Acta Paediatr (Oslo, Norway: 1992) 92(1):87–90
52. El-Desouki M, Al-Jurayyan N (1997) Bone mineral density and bone scintigraphy in children and adolescents with osteomalacia. Eur J Nucl Med 24(2):202–205
53. Perez-Rossello JM, Feldman HA, Kleinman PK, Connolly SA, Fair RA, Myers RM, Gordon CM (2012) Rachitic changes, demineralization, and fracture risk in healthy infants and toddlers with vitamin D deficiency. Radiology 262(1):234–241. doi:10.1148/radiol.11110358
54. Bener A, Al-Ali M, Hoffmann GF (2009) Vitamin D deficiency in healthy children in a sunny country: associated factors. Int J Food Sci Nutr 60(Suppl 5):60–70. doi:10.1080/09637480802400487
55. Rennie LM, Beattie TF, Wilkinson AG, Crofton P, Bath LE (2005) Incidental radiological diagnosis of rickets. Emerg Med J 22(8):534–537. doi:10.1136/emj.2003.011668
56. Herman MJ, Bulthuis DB (1999) Incidental diagnosis of nutritional rickets after clavicle fracture. Orthopedics 22(2):254–255
57. Bloom E, Klein EJ, Shushan D, Feldman KW (2004) Variable presentations of rickets in children in the emergency department. Pediatr Emerg Care 20(2):126–130
58. Senniappan S, Elazabi A, Doughty I, Mughal MZ (2008) Case 2: fractures in under-6-month-old exclusively breast-fed infants born to immigrant parents: nonaccidental injury? (case presentation). Diagnosis: pathological fractures secondary to vitamin D deficiency rickets in under-6-months-old, exclusively breast-fed infants, born to immigrant parents. Acta Paediatr (Oslo, Norway: 1992) 97(7):836–837. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00790.x
59. Bulloch B, Schubert CJ, Brophy PD, Johnson N, Reed MH, Shapiro RA (2000) Cause and clinical characteristics of rib fractures in infants. Pediatrics 105(4):E48
60. Schnadower D, Agarwal C, Oberfield SE, Fennoy I, Pusic M (2006) Hypocalcemic seizures and secondary bilateral femoral fractures in an adolescent with primary vitamin D deficiency. Pediatrics 118(5):2226–2230. doi:10.1542/peds.2006-1170
61. Bischoff-Ferrari HA, Dawson-Hughes B, Staehelin HB, Orav JE, Stuck AE, Theiler R, Wong JB, Egli A, Kiel DP, Henschkowski J (2009) Fall prevention with supplemental and active forms of vitamin D: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials. BMJ 339:b3692
62. James JR, Massey PA, Hollister AM, Greber EM (2013) Prevalence of hypovitaminosis D among children with upper extremity fractures. J Pediatr Orthop 33(2):159–162. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e3182770bf7
63. Ryan LM, Brandoli C, Freishtat RJ, Wright JL, Tosi L, Chamberlain JM (2010) Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in African American children with forearm fractures: a preliminary study. J Pediatr Orthop 30(2):106–109. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181d076a3
64. Chan GM, Hess M, Hollis J, Book LS (1984) Bone mineral status in childhood accidental fractures. Am J Dis Child 138(6):569–570
65. Farr JN, Amin S, Melton LJ, Kirmani S, McCready LK, Atkinson EJ, Müller R, Khosla S (2014) Bone strength and structural deficits in children and adolescents with a distal forearm fracture resulting from mild trauma. J Bone Miner Res 29(3):590–599. doi:10.1002/jbmr.2071
66. Ceroni D, Anderson de la Llana R, Martin X, Lamah L, De Coulon G, Turcot K, Dubois-Ferriere V (2012) Prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in Swiss teenagers with appendicular fractures: a prospective study of 100 cases. J Child Orthop 6(6):497–503. doi:10.1007/s11832-012-0446-7
67. Mayranpaa MK, Viljakainen HT, Toiviainen-Salo S, Kallio PE, Makitie O (2012) Impaired bone health and asymptomatic vertebral compressions in fracture-prone children: a case-control study. J Bone Miner Res 27(6):1413–1424. doi:10.1002/jbmr.1579
68. Olney RC, Mazur JM, Pike LM, Froyen MK, Ramirez-Garnica G, Loveless EA, Mandel DM, Hahn GA, Neal KM, Cummings RJ (2008) Healthy children with frequent fractures: how much evaluation is needed? Pediatrics 121(5):890–897. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-2079
69. Montgomery CO, Young KL, Austen M, Jo CH, Blasier RD, Ilyas M (2010) Increased risk of Blount disease in obese children and adolescents with vitamin D deficiency. J Pediatr Orthop 30(8):879–882. doi:10.1097/BPO.0b013e3181f5a0b3
70. Eschle D, Aeschlimann AG (2011) Is supplementation of vitamin D beneficial for fracture healing? A short review of the literature. Geriatr Orthop Surg Rehabil 2(3):90–93. doi:10.1177/2151458511408568
71. Boszczyk AM, Zakrzewski P, Pomianowski S (2013) Vitamin D concentration in patients with normal and impaired bone union. Pol Orthop Traumatol 78:1–3
72. Thacher TD, Fischer PR, Pettifor JM, Lawson JO, Manaster BJ, Reading JC (2000) Radiographic scoring method for the assessment of the severity of nutritional rickets. J Trop Pediatr 46(3):132–139
73. Akcam M, Yildiz M, Yilmaz A, Artan R (2006) Bone mineral density in response to two different regimes in rickets. Indian Pediatr 43(5):423–427
74. Ergur AT, Erselcan T (2000) Diagnostic value of bone mineral density measurements in infants with rickets. J Trop Pediatr 46(2):124–126
75. Ford JA, Davidson DC, McIntosh WB, Fyfe WM, Dunnigan MG (1973) Neonatal rickets in Asian immigrant population. Br Med J 3(5873):211–212
76. Moncrieff M, Fadahunsi TO (1974) Congenital rickets due to maternal vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child 49(10):810–811
77. Innes AM, Seshia MM, Prasad C, Al SS, Friesen FR, Chudley AE, Reed M, Dilling LA, Haworth JC, Greenberg CR (2002) Congenital rickets caused by maternal vitamin D deficiency. Paediatr Child Health 7(7):455–458
78. Curtis EM, Moon RJ, Dennison EM, Harvey NC (2014) Prenatal calcium and vitamin d intake, and bone mass in later life. Curr Osteoporos Rep 12(2):194–204. doi:10.1007/s11914-014-0210-7
79. Harvey NC, Holroyd C, Ntani G, Javaid MK, Cooper P, Moon RJ, Cole ZA, Tinati T, Godfrey KM, Dennison EM, Bishop NJ, Baird J, Cooper C (2014) Vitamin D supplementation in pregnancy: a systematic review. HTA Journal. 18(45):1–190
80. Congdon P, Horsman A, Kirby PA, Dibble J, Bashir T (1983) Mineral content of the forearms of babies born to Asian and white mothers. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 286(6373):1233–1235
81. Harvey NC, Javaid K, Bishop N, Kennedy S, Papageorghiou AT, Fraser R, Gandhi SV, Schoenmakers I, Prentice A, Cooper C (2012) MAVIDOS Maternal Vitamin D Osteoporosis Study: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. The MAVIDOS Study Group. Trials 13:13. doi:10.1186/1745-6215-13-13
82. Abrams SA, Hawthorne KM, Rogers SP, Hicks PD, Carpenter TO (2012) Effects of ethnicity and vitamin D supplementation on vitamin D status and changes in bone mineral content in infants. BMC Pediatr 12:6. doi:10.1186/1471-2431-12-6
83. Park MJ, Namgung R, Kim DH, Tsang RC (1998) Bone mineral content is not reduced despite low vitamin D status in breast milk-fed infants versus cow’s milk based formula-fed infants. J Pediatr 132(4):641–645
84. Greer FR, Searcy JE, Levin RS, Steichen JJ, Steichen-Asche PS, Tsang RC (1982) Bone mineral content and serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in breast-fed infants with and without supplemental vitamin D: one-year follow-up. J Pediatr 100(6):919–922
85. Greer FR, Marshall S (1989) Bone mineral content, serum vitamin D metabolite concentrations, and ultraviolet B light exposure in infants fed human milk with and without vitamin D2 supplements. J Pediatr 114(2):204–212
86. Kim MJ, Na B, No SJ, Han HS, Jeong EH, Lee W, Han Y, Hyeun T (2010) Nutritional status of vitamin D and the effect of vitamin D supplementation in Korean breast-fed infants. J Korean Med Sci 25(1):83–89. doi:10.3346/jkms.2010.25.1.83
87. Gallo S, Comeau K, Vanstone C, Agellon S, Sharma A, Jones G, L’Abbe M, Khamessan A, Rodd C, Weiler H (2013) Effect of different dosages of oral vitamin D supplementation on vitamin D status in healthy, breastfed infants: a randomized trial. JAMA 309(17):1785–1792. doi:10.1001/jama.2013.3404
88. Lee YA, Kim JY, Kang MJ, Chung SJ, Shin CH, Yang SW (2013) Adequate vitamin D status and adiposity contribute to bone health in peripubertal nonobese children. J Bone Miner Metab 31(3):337–345. doi:10.1007/s00774-012-0419-4
89. Cashman KD, Hill TR, Cotter AA, Boreham CA, Dubitzky W, Murray L, Strain J, Flynn A, Robson PJ, Wallace JM, Kiely M (2008) Low vitamin D status adversely affects bone health parameters in adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 87(4):1039–1044
90. Cheng S, Tylavsky F, Kroger H, Karkkainen M, Lyytikainen A, Koistinen A, Mahonen A, Alen M, Halleen J, Vaananen K, Lamberg-Allardt C (2003) Association of low 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations with elevated parathyroid hormone concentrations and low cortical bone density in early pubertal and prepubertal Finnish girls. Am J Clin Nutr 78(3):485–492
91. Lehtonen-Veromaa MK, Mottonen TT, Nuotio IO, Irjala KM, Leino AE, Viikari JS (2002) Vitamin D and attainment of peak bone mass among peripubertal Finnish girls: a 3-y prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr 76(6):1446–1453
92. Mouratidou T, Vicente-Rodriguez G, Gracia-Marco L, Huybrechts I, Sioen I, Widhalm K, Valtuena J, Gonzalez-Gross M, Moreno LA (2013) Associations of dietary calcium, vitamin D, milk intakes, and 25-hydroxyvitamin D with bone mass in Spanish adolescents: the HELENA study. J Clin Densitom 16(1):110–117. doi:10.1016/j.jocd.2012.07.008
93. Pekkinen M, Viljakainen H, Saarnio E, Lamberg-Allardt C, Makitie O (2012) Vitamin D is a major determinant of bone mineral density at school age. PLoS One 7(7):e40090. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0040090
94. Stein EM, Laing EM, Hall DB, Hausman DB, Kimlin MG, Johnson MA, Modlesky CM, Wilson AR, Lewis RD (2006) Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations in girls aged 4-8 y living in the southeastern United States. Am J Clin Nutr 83(1):75–81
95. Talwar SA, Swedler J, Yeh J, Pollack S, Aloia JF (2007) Vitamin-D nutrition and bone mass in adolescent black girls. J Natl Med Assoc 99(6):650–657
96. Vatanparast H, Nisbet C, Gushulak B (2013) Vitamin D insufficiency and bone mineral status in a population of newcomer children in Canada. Nutrients 5(5):1561–1572. doi:10.3390/nu5051561
97. Marwaha RK, Tandon N, Reddy DR, Aggarwal R, Singh R, Sawhney RC, Saluja B, Ganie MA, Singh S (2005) Vitamin D and bone mineral density status of healthy schoolchildren in northern India. Am J Clin Nutr 82(2):477–482
98. Valtuena J, Gracia-Marco L, Vicente-Rodriguez G, Gonzalez-Gross M, Huybrechts I, Rey-Lopez JP, Mouratidou T, Sioen I, Mesana MI, Martinez AE, Widhalm K, Moreno LA (2012) Vitamin D status and physical activity interact to improve bone mass in adolescents. The HELENA study. Osteoporos Int 23(8):2227–2237. doi:10.1007/s00198-011-1884-7
99. Lutz J (1986) Bone mineral, serum calcium, and dietary intakes of mother/daughter pairs. Am J Clin Nutr 44(1):99–106
100. Warden SJ, Hill KM, Ferira AJ, Laing EM, Martin BR, Hausman DB, Weaver CM, Peacock M, Lewis RD (2013) Racial differences in cortical bone and their relationship to biochemical variables in Black and White children in the early stages of puberty. Osteoporos Int 24(6):1869–1879. doi:10.1007/s00198-012-2174-8
101. Constantini NW, Dubnov-Raz G, Chodick G, Rozen GS, Giladi A, Ish-Shalom S (2010) Physical activity and bone mineral density in adolescents with vitamin D deficiency. Med Sci Sports Exerc 42(4):646–650. doi:10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181bb813b
102. Hill TR, Cotter AA, Mitchell S, Boreham CA, Dubitzky W, Murray L, Strain JJ, Flynn A, Robson PJ, Wallace JM, Kiely M, Cashman KD (2010) Vitamin D status and parathyroid hormone relationship in adolescents and its association with bone health parameters: analysis of the Northern Ireland Young Heart’s Project. Osteoporos Int 21(4):695–700. doi:10.1007/s00198-009-0959-1
103. Ducher G, Kukuljan S, Hill B, Garnham AP, Nowson CA, Kimlin MG, Cook J (2011) Vitamin D status and musculoskeletal health in adolescent male ballet dancers a pilot study. J Dance Med Sci 15(3):99–107
104. Sonderman JS, Munro HM, Blot WJ, Signorello LB (2012) Reproducibility of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin d and vitamin D-binding protein levels over time in a prospective cohort study of black and white adults. Am J Epidemiol 176(7):615–621. doi:10.1093/aje/kws141
105. Hofmann JN, Yu K, Horst RL, Hayes RB, Purdue MP (2010) Long-term variation in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration among participants in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial. Cancer Epidemiol Biomark Prev 19(4):927–931. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-09-1121
106. Winzenberg TM, Powell S, Shaw KA, Jones G (2010) Vitamin D supplementation for improving bone mineral density in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 10, CD006944. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006944.pub2
107. Cancer Research UK (2013) Leukemia incidence statistics. http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-info/cancerstats/types/leukaemia/incidence/uk-leukaemia-incidence-statistics#source1. Accessed 11 Mar 2014
108. Moy RJ, McGee E, Debelle GD, Mather I, Shaw NJ (2012) Successful public health action to reduce the incidence of symptomatic vitamin D deficiency. Arch Dis Child 97(11):952–954. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2012-302287
109. Matsuo K, Mukai T, Suzuki S, Fujieda K (2009) Prevalence and risk factors of vitamin D deficiency rickets in Hokkaido, Japan. Pediatr Int Off J Jpn Pediatr Soc 51(4):559–562. doi:10.1111/j.1442-200X.2009.02834.x
110. Office for National Statistics Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales 2011. http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/census/2011-census/key-statistics-for-local-authorities-in-england-and-wales/rpt-ethnicity.html. Accessed 11 Mar 2014
111. Harvey NC, Cooper C (2012) Vitamin D: some perspective please. BMJ (Clin Res Ed) 345:e4695. doi:10.1136/bmj.e4695
112. Agarwal A, Gulati D (2009) Early adolescent nutritional rickets. J Orthop Surg (Hong Kong) 17(3):340–345
113. Hatun S, Ozkan B, Orbak Z, Doneray H, Cizmecioglu F, Toprak D, Calikoglu AS (2005) Vitamin D deficiency in early infancy. J Nutr 135(2):279–282
114. Narchi H, El JM, Kulaylat N (2001) Symptomatic rickets in adolescence. Arch Dis Child 84(6):501–503
115. Tomashek KM, Nesby S, Scanlon KS, Cogswell ME, Powell KE, Parashar UD, Mellinger-Birdsong A, Grummer-Strawn LM, Dietz WH (2001) Nutritional rickets in Georgia. Pediatrics 107(4):E45