Ebola virus disease in Africa: Epidemiology and nosocomial transmission

Journal of Hospital Infection

Volumn 90, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 1-9

  Shears, P ^a   O'Dempsey, T J D ^b  

^a WIRRAL UNIVERSITY TEACHING HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b LIVERPOOL SCHOOL OF TROPICAL MEDICINE   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Africa; Ebola virus disease; Healthcare workers; Nosocomial transmission

Indexed keywords

AFRICA; COMMUNITY CARE; DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC CONGO; DISEASE SURVEILLANCE; DISEASE TRANSMISSION; EBOLA HEMORRHAGIC FEVER; HEALTH CARE FACILITY; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEALTH PROGRAM; HUMAN; INFECTION CONTROL; MORTALITY; PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SUDAN; UGANDA; CROSS INFECTION; DISEASE CARRIER; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; EBOLAVIRUS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; ISOLATION AND PURIFICATION; PROCEDURES; PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICE; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; TRANSMISSION; VIROLOGY;

AFRICA; COMMUNICABLE DISEASE CONTROL; CROSS INFECTION; DISEASE OUTBREAKS; DISEASE RESERVOIRS; EBOLAVIRUS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HEMORRHAGIC FEVER, EBOLA; HUMANS; INFECTION CONTROL; PUBLIC HEALTH PRACTICE;

EID: 84926980952     PISSN: 01956701     EISSN: 15322939     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2015.01.002     Document Type: Review

References (107)

1. World Health Organization Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan, 1976. Report of a WHO/International Study Team. Bull WHO 1978, 56:247-270.
2. World Health Organization Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Zaire, 1976. Bull WHO 1978, (56):271-293.
3. Peters C.J., LeDuc J.W. An introduction to Ebola, the virus and the disease. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):9-14.
4. World Health Organization Interim infection control recommendations for care of patients with suspected or confirmed filovirus (Ebola, Marburg) haemorrhagic fever March 2008, WHO, Geneva.
5. Green A. West Africa struggles to contain Ebola outbreak. Lancet 2014, 383(9924):1196.
6. World Health Organization Ebola response roadmap - situation report December 31st, 2014, [accessed 07.01.15]. http://www.who.int/csr/disease/ebola/situation-reports/en/.
7. Legrand J., Grais R.F., Boelle Y., Valleron A.J., Flahault A. Understanding the dynamics of Ebola epidemics. Epidemiol Infect 2007, 135:610-621.
8. Ki M. What do we really fear? The epidemiological characteristics of Ebola and our preparedness. Epidemiol Health 2014, 36:e2014014.
9. Reed D.S., Lackemeyer M.G., Garza N.L., Sullivan L.J., Nichols D.K. Aerosol exposure to Zaire ebolavirus in three nonhuman primate species: differences in disease course and clinical pathology. Microbes Infect 2011, 13:930-936.
10. Colebunders R., Borchert M. Ebola haemorrhagic fever - a review. JInfect 2000, 40:16-20.
11. Leroy E.M., Kumulungui B., Pourrut X., et al. Fruit bats as reservoirs of Ebola virus. Nature 2005, 438(7068):575-576.
12. Changula K., Kajihara M., Mweene A.S., Takada A. Ebola andMarburg virus diseases in Africa: increased risk of outbreaks in previously unaffected areas?. Microbiol Immunol 2014, 58:483-491.
13. Baron R.C., McCormick J.B., Zubeir O.A. Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan: hospital dissemination and intrafamilial spread. Bull WHO 1983, 61:997-1003.
14. Georges A.J., Leroy E.M., Renaut A.A., et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Gabon, 1994-1997: epidemiologic and health control issues. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S65-S75.
15. Formenty P., Hatz C., Le Guenno B., et al. Human infection due to Ebola virus, subtype CÔte d'Ivoire: clinical and biologic presentation. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S48-S53.
16. Khan A.S., Tshioko F.K., Heymann D.L., et al. The re-emergence of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. Commission de Lutte contre les Epidémies à Kikwit. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S76-S86.
17. US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever Uganda, August 2000-January 2001. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2001, 50:73-77.
18. Nkoghe D., Formenty P., Leroy E.M., et al. Multiple Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Gabon, from October 2001 to April 2002. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2005, 98:224-229.
19. Anonymous Outbreak(s) of Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Congo and Gabon, October 2001-July 2002. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2003, 78:223-228.
20. Formenty P., Libama F., Epelboin A., et al. Outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo, 2003: a new strategy?. MedTrop (Mars) 2003, 63:291-295.
21. Anonymous Outbreak(s) of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo, January-April 2003. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2003, 78:285-289.
22. Anonymous Outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Yambio, south Sudan, April - June 2004. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2005, 80:370-375.
23. Nkoghe D., Kone M.L., Yada A., Leroy E. Alimited outbreak of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Etoumbi, Republic of Congo, 2005. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2011, 105:466-472.
24. Anonymous Outbreak news. Ebola virus haemorrhagic fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo - update. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2007, 82:345-346.
25. Wamala J.F., Lukwago L., Malimbo M., et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever associated with novel virus strain, Uganda, 2007-2008. Emerg Infect Dis 2010, 16:1087-1092.
26. World Health Organization End of Ebola outbreak in Democratic Republic of the Congo [accessed 30.09.14]. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2009_02_17/en/.
27. Albarino C.G., Shoemaker T., Khristova M.L., et al. Genomic analysis of filoviruses associated with four hemorrhagic fever outbreaks in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2012. Virology 2013, 442:97-100.
28. Outbreak news. Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2012, 87:338-339.
29. Shoemaker T., MacNeil A., Balinandi S., et al. Re-emerging Sudan Ebola virus disease in Uganda, 2011. Emerg Infect Dis 2012, 18:1480-1483.
30. Brès P. The epidemic of Ebola haemorrhagic fever in Sudan and Zaire, 1976: introductory note. Bull WHO 1978, 56:245.
31. McCormick J.B., Bauer S.P., Elliott L.H., et al. Biologic differences between strains of Ebola virus from Zaire and Sudan. JInfect Dis 1983, 147:264-267.
32. Richman D.D., Cleveland P.H., McCormick J.B., Johnson K.M. Antigenic analysis of strains of Ebola virus: identification of two Ebola virus serotypes. JInfect Dis 1983, 147:268-271.
33. Outbreak(s) of Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Congo and Gabon, October 2001 to July 2002. Can Commun Dis Rep 2003, 29:129-133.
34. World Health Organization Ebola haemorrhagic fever in the Republic of the Congo - update 6 January 6th, 2014, [accessed 30.09.14]. http://www.who.int/csr/don/2004_01_06/en/.
35. Leroy E.M., Epelboin A., Mondonge V., et al. Human Ebola outbreak resulting from direct exposure to fruit bats in Luebo, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2007. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2009, 9:723-728.
36. Grard G., Biek R., Tamfum J.J., et al. Emergence of divergent Zaire ebola virus strains in Democratic Republic of the Congo in 2007 and 2008. JInfect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl. 3):S776-S784.
37. Ebola haemorrhagic fever. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 1995, 70:149-151.
38. Rodriguez L.L., De Roo A., Guimard Y., et al. Persistence and genetic stability of Ebola virus during the outbreak in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S170-S176.
39. De Roo A., Ado B., Rose B., Guimard Y., Fonck K., Colebunders R. Survey among survivors of the 1995 Ebola epidemic in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of Congo: their feelings and experiences. Trop Med Int Health 1998, 3:883-885.
40. Okware S.I., Omaswa F.G., Zaramba S., et al. An outbreak of Ebola in Uganda. Trop Med Int Health 2002, 7:1068-1075.
41. Lamunu M., Lutwama J.J., Kamugisha J., et al. Containing a haemorrhagic fever epidemic: the Ebola experience in Uganda (October 2000-January 2001). Int J Infect Dis 2004, 8:27-37.
42. Ndambi R., Akamituna P., Bonnet M.J., et al. Epidemiologic and clinical aspects of the Ebola virus epidemic in Mosango, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S8-S10.
43. Muyembe-Tamfum J.J., Kipasa M., Kiyungu C., Colebunders R. Ebola outbreak in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo: discovery and control measures. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S259-S262.
44. Borchert M., Mutyaba I., Van Kerkhove M.D., et al. Ebola haemorrhagic fever outbreak in Masindi District, Uganda: outbreak description and lessons learned. BMC Infect Dis 2011, 11:357.
45. Onyango C.O., Opoka M.L., Ksiazek T.G., et al. Laboratory diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever during an outbreak in Yambio, Sudan, 2004. JInfect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl. 2):S193-S198.
46. Anonymous Outbreak news. Ebola haemorrhagic fever, Uganda. Wkly Epidemiol Rec 2012, 87:339.
47. MacNeil A., Farnon E.C., Wamala J., et al. Proportion of deaths and clinical features in Bundibugyo Ebola virus infection, Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 2010, 16:1969-1972.
48. Roddy P., Howard N., Van Kerkhove M.D., et al. Clinical manifestations and case management of Ebola haemorrhagic fever caused by a newly identified virus strain, Bundibugyo, Uganda, 2007-2008. PLoS One 2012, 7(12).
49. Le Guenno B., Formenty P., Wyers M., et al. Isolation and partial characterisation of a new strain of Ebola virus. Lancet 1995, 345:1271-1274.
50. Bausch D.G., Towner J.S., Dowell S.F., et al. Assessment of the risk of Ebola virus transmission from bodily fluids and fomites. JInfect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl. 2):S142-S147.
51. Formenty P., Leroy E.M., Epelboin A., et al. Detection of Ebola virus in oral fluid specimens during outbreaks of Ebola virus hemorrhagic fever in the Republic of Congo. Clin Infect Dis 2006, 42:1521-1526.
52. Sanchez A., Lukwiya M., Bausch D., et al. Analysis of human peripheral blood samples from fatal and nonfatal cases of Ebola (Sudan) hemorrhagic fever: cellular responses, virus load, and nitric oxide levels. JVirol 2004, 78:10370-10377.
53. Towner J.S., Rollin P.E., Bausch D.G., et al. Rapid diagnosis of Ebola hemorrhagic fever by reverse transcription-PCR in an outbreak setting and assessment of patient viral load as a predictor of outcome. JVirol 2004, 78:4330-4341.
54. Schieffelin J.S., Shaffer J.G., Goba A., et al. Clinical illness and outcomes in patients with Ebola in Sierra Leone. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:2092-2100.
55. Kortepeter M.G., Bausch D.G., Bray M. Basic clinical and laboratory features of filoviral hemorrhagic fever. JInfect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl. 3):S810-S816.
56. Ftika L., Maltezou H.C. Viral haemorrhagic fevers in healthcare settings. JHosp Infect 2013, 83:185-192.
57. Dowell S.F., Mukunu R., Ksiazek T.G., Khan A.S., Rollin P.E., Peters C.J. Transmission of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: a study of risk factors in family members, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. Commission de Lutte contre les Epidémies à Kikwit. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S87-S91.
58. Roels T.H., Bloom A.S., Buffington J., et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995: risk factors for patients without a reported exposure. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S92-S97.
59. Rowe A.K., Bertolli J., Khan A.S., et al. Clinical, virologic, and immunologic follow-up of convalescent Ebola hemorrhagic fever patients and their household contacts, Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Commission de Lutte contre les Epidémies à Kikwit. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S28-S35.
60. Francesconi P., Yoti Z., Declich S., et al. Ebola hemorrhagic fever transmission and risk factors of contacts, Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9:1430-1437.
61. Rothe C., Schlaich C., Thompson S. Healthcare-associated infections in sub-Saharan Africa. JHosp Infect 2013, 85:257-267.
62. Raza M.W., Kazi B.M., Mustafa M., Gould F.K. Developing countries have their own characteristic problems with infection control. JHosp Infect 2004, 57:294-299.
63. Shears P. Poverty and infection in the developing world: healthcare-related infections and infection control in the tropics. JHosp Infect 2007, 67:217-224.
64. Simonsen L., Kane A., Lloyd J., Zaffran M., Kane M. Unsafe injections in the developing world and transmission of bloodborne pathogens: a review. Bull WHO 1999, 77:789-800.
65. Hu D.J., Kane M.A., Heymann D.L. Transmission of HIV, hepatitis B virus, and other bloodborne pathogens in health care settings: a review of risk factors and guidelines for prevention. Bull WHO 1991, 69:623-630.
66. Kerstiëns B., Matthys F. Interventions to control virus transmission during an outbreak of Ebola hemorrhagic fever: experience from Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1995. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S263-S267.
67. Guimard Y., Bwaka M.A., Colebunders R., et al. Organization of patient care during the Ebola haemorrhagic fever epidemic in Kikwit, Democratic Republic of Congo, 1995. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S268-S273.
68. Raabe V.N., Borchert M. Infection control during filoviral hemorrhagic fever outbreaks. JGlob Infect Dis 2012, 4:69-74.
69. Colebunders R., Sleurs H., Pirard P., et al. Organisation of health care during an outbreak of Marburg haemorrhagic fever in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 1999. JInfect 2004, 48:347-353.
70. Jeffs B., Roddy P., Weatherill D., et al. The Medecins Sans Frontieres intervention in the Marburg hemorrhagic fever epidemic, Uige, Angola, 2005. I. Lessons learned in the hospital. JInfect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl. 2):S154-S161.
71. Roddy P., Weatherill D., Jeffs B., et al. The Medecins Sans Frontieres intervention in the Marburg hemorrhagic fever epidemic, Uige, Angola, 2005. II. Lessons learned in the community. JInfect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl. 2):S162-S167.
72. Borchert M., Mulangu S., Lefevre P., et al. Use of protective gear and the occurrence of occupational Marburg hemorrhagic fever in health workers from Watsa health zone, Democratic Republic of the Congo. JInfect Dis 2007, 196(Suppl. 2):S168-S175.
73. Hewlett B.S., Amola R.P. Cultural contexts of Ebola in northern Uganda. Emerg Infect Dis 2003, 9:1242-1248.
74. Hewlett B.S., Epelboin A., Hewlett BL, Formenty P Medical anthropology and Ebola in Congo: cultural models and humanistic care. Bull Soc Pathol Exot 2005, 98:230-236.
75. Raabe V.N., Mutyaba I., Roddy P., Lutwama J.J., Geissler W., Borchert M. Infection control during filoviral hemorrhagic fever outbreaks: preferences of community members and health workers in Masindi, Uganda. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2010, 104:48-50.
76. Sandbladh H. Role of the Red Cross movement in Uganda's Ebola outbreak. Bull WHO 2001, 79:267.
77. Kinsman J. "A time of fear": local, national, and international responses to a large Ebola outbreak in Uganda. Global Health 2012, 8:15.
78. Dixon M.G. Schafer IJ; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Ebola viral disease outbreak - West Africa, 2014. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014, 63:548-551.
79. Briand S., Bertherat E., Cox P., et al. The international Ebola emergency. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:1180-1183.
80. World Health Organization Ebola Response Team Ebola virus disease in West Africa - the first 9 months of the epidemic and forward projections. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:1481-1495.
81. Baize S., Pannetier D., Oestereich L., et al. Emergence of Zaire Ebola virus disease in Guinea. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:1418-1425.
82. Bausch D.G., Schwarz L. Outbreak of ebola virus disease in Guinea: where ecology meets economy. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014, 8:e3056.
83. Gire S.K., Goba A., Andersen K.G., et al. Genomic surveillance elucidates Ebola virus origin and transmission during the 2014 outbreak. Science 2014, 345:1369-1372.
84. Editorial Ebola: a failure of international collective action. Lancet 2014, 384:637.
85. Baden L.R., Kanapathipillai R., Campion E.W., Morrissey S., Rubin E.J., Drazen J.M. Ebola - an ongoing crisis. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:1458-1459.
86. Anonymous Ebola in west Africa: gaining community trust and confidence. Lancet 2014, 383(9933):1946.
87. Summers A., Nyenswah T.G., Montgomery J.M., Neatherlin J., Tappero J.W. Challenges in responding to the Ebola epidemic - four rural counties, Liberia, August-November 2014. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014, 63:1202-1204.
88. Anonymous Ebola: protection of health workers on the front line. Lancet 2014, 384(9942):470.
89. Kilmarx P.H., Clarke K.R., Dietz P.M., et al. Ebola virus disease in health care workers - Sierra Leone, 2014. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014, 63:1168-1171.
90. Pathmanathan I., O'Connor K.A., Adams M.L., et al. Rapid assessment of ebola infection prevention and control needs - six districts, Sierra Leone, October 2014. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014, 63:1172-1174.
91. Meltzer M.I., Atkins C.Y., Santibanez S., et al. Estimating the future number of cases in the Ebola epidemic: Liberia and Sierra Leone, 2014-2015. MMWR Surveill Summ 2014, 63:1-14.
92. Parra J.M., Salmerón O.J., Velasco M. The first case of Ebola virus disease acquired outside Africa. NEngl J Med 2014, 371:2439-2440.
93. McCarty C.L., Basler C., Karwowski M. Response to importation of a case of Ebola virus disease - Ohio, October 2014. Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2014, 63:1089-1091.
94. Johnson K.M. Gleanings from the harvest: suggestions for priority actions against Ebola virus epidemics. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S287-S288.
95. Tambo E., Ugwu E.C., Ngogang J.Y. Need of surveillance response systems to combat Ebola outbreaks and other emerging infectious diseases in African countries. Infect Dis Poverty 2014, 3:29.
96. Jezek Z., Szczeniowski M.Y., Muyembe-Tamfum J.J., McCormick J.B., Heymann D.L. Ebola between outbreaks: intensified Ebola hemorrhagic fever surveillance in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 1981-1985. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S60-S64.
97. Lloyd E.S., Zaki S.R., Rollin P.E., et al. Long-term disease surveillance in Bandundu region, Democratic Republic of the Congo: a model for early detection and prevention of Ebola hemorrhagic fever. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S274-S280.
98. Bonney J.H., Osei-Kwasi M., Adiku T.K., et al. Hospital-based surveillance for viral hemorrhagic fevers and hepatitides in Ghana. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013, 7:e2435.
99. MacNeil A., Farnon E.C., Morgan O.W., et al. Filovirus outbreak detection and surveillance: lessons from Bundibugyo. JInfect Dis 2011, 204(Suppl. 3):S761-S767.
100. Fisher-Hoch S.P. Lessons from nosocomial viral haemorrhagic fever outbreaks. Br Med Bull 2005, 73-74:123-137.
101. Fisher-Hoch S.P., Tomori O., Nasidi A., et al. Review of cases of nosocomial Lassa fever in Nigeria: the high price of poor medical practice. BMJ 1995, 311(7009):857-859.
102. Aradaib I.E., Erickson B.R., Mustafa M.E., et al. Nosocomial outbreak of Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Sudan. Emerg Infect Dis 2010, 16:837-839.
103. Heymann D.L., Barakamfitiye D., Szczeniowski M., Muyembe-Tamfum J.J., Bele O., Rodier G. Ebola hemorrhagic fever: lessons from Kikwit, Democratic Republic of the Congo. JInfect Dis 1999, 179(Suppl. 1):S283-S286.
104. Gitta S.N., Mukanga D., Babirye R., Dahlke M., Tshimanga M., Nsubuga P. The African Field Epidemiology Network - networking for effective field epidemiology capacity building and service delivery. Pan Afr Med J 2011, 10(Suppl. 1):3.
105. Berger S.A. GIDEON: a comprehensive Web-based resource for geographic medicine. Int J Health Geogr 2005, 4:10.
106. Bruckner C., Checchi F. Detection of infectious disease outbreaks in twenty-two fragile states, 2000-2010: a systematic review. Confl Health 2011, 5:13.
107. Gayer M., Legros D., Formenty P., Connolly M.A. Conflict and emerging infectious diseases. Emerg Infect Dis 2007, 13:1625-1631.