Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis

Chemical Immunology and Allergy

Volumn 97, Issue , 2012, Pages 149-166

  Harr, Thomas ^a   French, Lars E ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ALLOPURINOL; AMINOPENICILLIN; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; CARBAMAZEPINE; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CHLORMEZANONE; CYCLOSPORIN A; DEXAMETHASONE; HLA B ANTIGEN; IMMUNOGLOBULIN; LAMOTRIGINE; MELOXICAM; NEVIRAPINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; PHENOBARBITAL; PHENYTOIN; PIROXICAM; PLACEBO; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; SALAZOSULFAPYRIDINE; SERTRALINE; SULFADIAZINE; SULFADOXINE; SULFAFURAZOLE; SULFONAMIDE; TENOXICAM; THALIDOMIDE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VALPROIC ACID;

ACUTE GENERALIZED EXANTHEMATOUS PUSTULOSIS; ALLERGY TEST; ARTICLE; AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE; BACTERIAL SKIN DISEASE; BULLOUS DERMATITIS; CLINICAL FEATURE; DIAGNOSTIC VALUE; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; DISEASE COURSE; DISEASE SEVERITY; DISSEMINATED FIXED BULLOUS DRUG ERUPTION; DRESS SYNDROME; DRUG DOSE REDUCTION; DRUG ERUPTION; DRUG MEGADOSE; EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HUMAN; IMMUNOPATHOGENESIS; IMMUNOTHERAPY; INTRAVENOUS ADMINISTRATION; PATHOGENESIS; PLASMAPHERESIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTOR; SCORING SYSTEM; SCORTEN SCORE; STAPHYLOCCOCAL SCALDED SKIN SYNDROME; STEVENS JOHNSON SYNDROME; TOXIC EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ALLOPURINOL; ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AGENTS, NON-STEROIDAL; ANTICONVULSANTS; APOPTOSIS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; EPIDERMAL NECROLYSIS, TOXIC; EPITHELIAL CELLS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HLA-B15 ANTIGEN; HUMANS; IMMUNOGLOBULINS; INJECTIONS, INTRAVENOUS; PROGNOSIS; SKIN; STEVENS-JOHNSON SYNDROME;

EID: 84926082906     PISSN: 16602242     EISSN: 16622898     Source Type: Book Series    
DOI: 10.1159/000335627     Document Type: Article

References (95)

1. Bastuji-Garin S, Rzany B, Stern RS, Shear NH, Naldi L, Roujeau JC: Clinical classification of cases of toxic epidermal necrolysis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and erythema multiforme. Arch Dermatol 1993;129:92-96.
2. Fiessinger N, Rendu R: Sur un syndrome characterise par l'inflammation simultanee de toutes les muqueuses externes coexistant avec une eruption vesiculeuse des quatre membres, non douloureuse et non recidivante. Paris Med 1917;25:54-58.
3. Stevens AM, Johnson FC: A new eruptive fever associated with stomatitis and ophtalmia; report of two cases in children. Am J Dis Child 1922;24:526-533.
4. Lyell A: Toxic epidermal necrolysis: an eruption resembling scalding of the skin. Br J Dermatol 1956; 68:355-361.
5. Rzany B, Correia O, Kelly JP, Naldi L, Auquier A, Stern R: Risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis during first weeks of antiepileptic therapy: a case-control study. Study Group of the International Case Control Study on Severe Cutaneous Adverse Reactions. Lancet 1999; 353:2190-2194.
6. La Grenade L, Lee L, Weaver J, Bonnel R, Karwoski C, Governale L, Brinker A: Comparison of reporting of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in association with selective COX-2 inhibitors. Drug Saf 2005;28:917-924.
7. Roujeau JC, Kelly JP, Naldi L, Rzany B, Stern RS, Anderson T, Auquier A, Bastuji-Garin S, Correia O, Locati F, Mockenhaupt M, Paoletti C, Shapiro S, Shear N, Schöpf E, Kaufman DW: Medication use and the risk of Stevens-Johnson syndrome or toxic epidermal necrolysis. N Engl J Med 1995;333: 1600-1607.
8. Aguiar D, Pazo R, Duran I, Terrasa J, Arrivi A, Manzano H, Martin J, Rifa J: Toxic epidermal necrolysis in patients receiving anticonvulsants and cranial irradiation: a risk to consider. J Neurooncol 2004;66:345-350.
9. Aydin F, Cokluk C, Senturk N, Aydin K, Canturk MT, Turanli AY: Stevens-Johnson syndrome in two patients treated with cranial irradiation and phenytoin. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2006;20: 588-590.
10. Fournier S, Bastuji-Garin S, Mentec H, Revuz J, Roujeau JC: Toxic epidermal necrolysis associated with Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 1995;14:558-559.
11. Mulvey JM, Padowitz A, Lindley-Jones M, Nickels R: Mycoplasma pneumoniae associated with Stevens Johnson syndrome. Anaesth Intensive Care 2007;35: 414-417.
12. Schalock PC, Dinulos JG: Mycoplasma pneumoniaeinduced Stevens-Johnson syndrome without skin lesions: fact or fiction? J Am Acad Dermatol 2005; 52:312-315.
13. Forman R, Koren G, Shear NH: Erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in children: a review of 10 years' experience. Drug Saf 2002;25:965-972.
14. Lebargy F, Wolkenstein P, Gisselbrecht M, Lange F, Fleury-Feith J, Delclaux C, Roupie E, Revuz J, Roujeau JC: Pulmonary complications in toxic epidermal necrolysis: a prospective clinical study. Intensive Care Med 1997;23:1237-1244.
15. Revuz J, Penso D, Roujeau JC, Guillaume JC, Payne CR, Wechsler J, Touraine R: Toxic epidermal necrolysis. Clinical findings and prognosis factors in 87 patients. Arch Dermatol 1987;123:1160-1165.
16. Chang YS, Huang FC, Tseng SH, Hsu CK, Ho CL, Sheu HM: Erythema multiforme, Stevens-Johnson syndrome, and toxic epidermal necrolysis: acute ocular manifestations, causes, and management. Cornea 2007;26:123-129.
17. Sotozono C, Ueta M, Koizumi N, Inatomi T, Shirakata Y, Ikezawa Z, Hashimoto K, Kinoshita S: Diagnosis and treatment of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis with ocular complications. Ophthalmology 2009;116:685-690.
18. Yip LW, Thong BY, Lim J, Tan AW, Wong HB, Handa S, Heng WJ: Ocular manifestations and complications of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: an Asian series. Allergy 2007;62: 527-531.
19. Magina S, Lisboa C, Leal V, Palmares J, Mesquita-Guimaraes J: Dermatological and ophthalmological sequels in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Dermatology 2003;207:33-36.
20. Oplatek A, Brown K, Sen S, Halerz M, Supple K, Gamelli RL: Long-term follow-up of patients treated for toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Burn Care Res 2006;27:26-33.
21. Roujeau JC, Guillaume JC, Revuz J, Touraine R: Reporting adverse drug reactions. Lancet 1985;2: 1244-1247.
22. Saban J, Pais JR, Rodriguez JL, Boixeda D: Sjogrenlike pluriglandular exocrine insufficiency after drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Postgrad Med J 1991;67:195-197.
23. Chung WH, Hung SI, Hong HS, Hsih MS, Yang LC, Ho HC, Wu JY, Chen YT: Medical genetics: a marker for Stevens-Johnson syndrome. Nature 2004;428: 486.
24. Man CB, Kwan P, Baum L, Yu E, Lau KM, Cheng AS, Ng MH: Association between HLA-B*1502 allele and antiepileptic drug-induced cutaneous reactions in Han Chinese. Epilepsia 2007;48:1015-1018.
25. Tassaneeyakul W, Tiamkao S, Jantararoungtong T, Chen P, Lin SY, Chen WH, Konyoung P, Khunarkornsiri U, Auvichayapat N, Pavakul K, Kulkantrakorn K, Choonhakarn C, Phonhiamhan S, Piyatrakul N, Aungaree T, Pongpakdee S, Yodnopaglaw P: Association between HLA-B*1502 and carbamazepine-induced severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions in a Thai population. Epilepsia 2010;51:926-930.
26. Alfirevic A, Jorgensen AL, Williamson PR, Chadwick DW, Park BK, Pirmohamed M: HLA-B locus in Caucasian patients with carbamazepine hypersensitivity. Pharmacogenomics 2006;7:813-818.
27. Kaniwa N, Saito Y, Aihara M, Matsunaga K, Tohkin M, Kurose K, Sawada J, Furuya H, Takahashi Y, Muramatsu M, Kinoshita S, Abe M, Ikeda H, Kashiwagi M, Song Y, Ueta M, Sotozono C, Ikezawa Z, Hasegawa R, JSAR research group: HLA-B locus in Japanese patients with anti-epileptics and allopurinol-related Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Pharmacogenomics 2008; 9:1617-1622.
28. Lonjou C, Thomas L, Borot N, Ledger N, de Toma C, LeLouet H, Graf E, Schumacher M, Hovnanian A, Mockenhaupt M, Roujeau JC: A marker for Stevens-Johnson syndrome . . . : ethnicity matters. Pharmacogenomics J 2006;6:265-268.
29. Lonjou C, Borot N, Sekula P, Ledger N, Thomas L, Halevy S, Naldi L, Bouwes-Bavinck JN, Sidoroff A, de Toma C, Schumacher M, Roujeau JC, Hovnanian A, Mockenhaupt M, RegiSCAR study group: A European study of HLA-B in Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis related to five high-risk drugs. Pharmacogenet Genomics 2008;18:99-107.
30. McCormack M, Alfirevic A, Bourgeois S, Farrell JJ, et al: HLA-A*3101 and carbamazepine-induced hypersensitivity reactions in Europeans. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1134-1143.
31. Hung SI, Chung WH, Liou LB, Chu CC, Lin M, Huang HP, Lin YL, Lan JL, Yang LC, Hong HS, Chen MJ, Lai PC, Wu MS, Chu CY, Wang KH, Chen CH, Fann CS, Wu JY, Chen YT: HLA-B*5801 allele as a genetic marker for severe cutaneous adverse reactions caused by allopurinol. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2005;102:4134-4139.
32. Chen P, Lin JJ, Lu CS, Ong CT, et al: Taiwan SJS Consortium: Carbamazepine-induced toxic effects and HLA-B*1502 screening in Taiwan. N Engl J Med 2011;364:1126-1133.
33. Halevi A, Ben-Amitai D, Garty BZ: Toxic epidermal necrolysis associated with acetaminophen ingestion. Ann Pharmacother 2000;34:32-34.
34. Schmidt D, Kluge W: Fatal toxic epidermal necrolysis following reexposure to phenytoin: a case report. Epilepsia 1983;24:440-443.
35. Correia O, Delgado L, Ramos JP, Resende C, Torrinha JA: Cutaneous T-cell recruitment in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Further evidence of CD8+ lymphocyte involvement. Arch Dermatol 1993;129: 466-468.
36. Le Cleach L, Delaire S, Boumsell L, Bagot M, Bourgault-Villada I, Bensussan A, Roujeau JC: Blister fluid T lymphocytes during toxic epidermal necrolysis are functional cytotoxic cells which express human natural killer (NK) inhibitory receptors. Clin Exp Immunol 2000;119:225-230.
37. Nassif A, Bensussan A, Boumsell L, Deniaud A, Moslehi H, Wolkenstein P, Bagot M, Roujeau JC: Toxic epidermal necrolysis: effector cells are drugspecific cytotoxic T cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2004;114:1209-1215.
38. Chung WH, Hung SI, Yang JY, Su SC, Huang SP, Wei CY, Chin SW, Chiou CC, Chu SC, Ho HC, Yang CH, Lu CF, Wu JY, Liao YD, Chen YT: Granulysin is a key mediator for disseminated keratinocyte death in Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Nat Med 2008;14:1343-1350.
39. Viard I, Wehrli P, Bullani R, Schneider P, Holler N, Salomon D, Hunziker T, Saurat JH, Tschopp J, French LE: Inhibition of toxic epidermal necrolysis by blockade of CD95 with human intravenous immunoglobulin. Science 1998;282:490-493.
40. Murata J, Abe R, Shimizu H: Increased soluble Fas ligand levels in patients with Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis preceding skin detachment. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008;122: 992-1000.
41. Schneider P, Holler N, Bodmer JL, Hahne M, Frei K, Fontana A, Tschopp J: Conversion of membranebound Fas(CD95) ligand to its soluble form is associated with downregulation of its proapoptotic activity and loss of liver toxicity. J Exp Med 1998;187: 1205-1213.
42. Abe R, Shimizu T, Shibaki A, Nakamura H, Watanabe H, Shimizu H: Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome are induced by soluble Fas ligand. Am J Pathol 2003;162: 1515-1520.
43. Halevy S, Ghislain PD, Mockenhaupt M, Fagot JP, Bouwes Bavinck JN, Sidoroff A, Naldi L, Dunant A, Viboud C, Roujeau JC: Allopurinol is the most common cause of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in Europe and Israel. J Am Acad Dermatol 2008;58:25-32.
44. Mockenhaupt M, Viboud C, Dunant A, Naldi L, Halevy S, Bouwes Bavinck JN, Sidoroff A, Schneck J, Roujeau JC, Flahault A: Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: assessment of medication risks with emphasis on recently marketed drugs. The EuroSCAR-study. J Invest Dermatol 2008;128:35-44.
45. Garcia-Doval I, LeCleach L, Bocquet H, Otero XL, Roujeau JC: Toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: does early withdrawal of causative drugs decrease the risk of death? Arch Dermatol 2000;136:323-327.
46. Litt JZ: Litt's Drug Eruptions and Reactions Manual, ed 16. London, Informa, 2010.
47. Roujeau JC, Stern RS: Severe adverse cutaneous reactions to drugs. N Engl J Med 1994;331: 1272-1285.
48. Palmieri TL, Greenhalgh DG, Saffle JR, Spence RJ, Peck MD, Jeng JC, Mozingo DW, Yowler CJ, Sheridan RL, Ahrenholz DH, Caruso DM, Foster KN, Kagan RJ, Voigt DW, Purdue GF, Hunt JL, Wolf S, Molitor F: A multicenter review of toxic epidermal necrolysis treated in U.S. burn centers at the end of the twentieth century. J Burn Care Rehabil 2002;23:87-96.
49. McGee T, Munster A: Toxic epidermal necrolysis syndrome: mortality rate reduced with early referral to regional burn center. Plast Reconstr Surg 1998; 102:1018-1022.
50. Schneck J, Fagot JP, Sekula P, Sassolas B, Roujeau JC, Mockenhaupt M: Effects of treatments on the mortality of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a retrospective study on patients included in the prospective EuroSCAR Study. J Am Acad Dermatol 2008;58:33-40.
51. Kardaun SH, Jonkman MF: Dexamethasone pulse therapy for Stevens-Johnson syndrome/toxic epidermal necrolysis. Acta Derm Venereol 2007;87: 144-148.
52. Wolkenstein P, Latarjet J, Roujeau JC, Duguet C, Boudeau S, Vaillant L, Maignan M, Schuhmacher MH, Milpied B, Pilorget A, Bocquet H, Brun-Buisson C, Revuz J: Randomised comparison of thalidomide versus placebo in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Lancet 1998;352:1586-1589.
53. Namazi MR: Increased mortality in toxic epidermal necrolysis with thalidomide: corroborating or exonerating the pathogenetic role of TNF-alpha? Br J Dermatol 2006;155:842-843.
54. Bachot N, Revuz J, Roujeau JC: Intravenous immunoglobulin treatment for Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis: a prospective noncomparative study showing no benefit on mortality or progression. Arch Dermatol 2003;139: 33-36.
55. Prins C, Gelfand EW, French LE: Intravenous immunoglobulin: properties, mode of action and practical use in dermatology. Acta Derm Venereol 2007;87:206-218.
56. Al-Mutairi N, Arun J, Osama NE, Amr Z, Mazen AS, Ibtesam el A, Nazeha el B: Prospective, noncomparative open study from Kuwait of the role of intravenous immunoglobulin in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis. Int J Dermatol 2004;43: 847-851.
57. Brown KM, Silver GM, Halerz M, Walaszek P, Sandroni A, Gamelli RL: Toxic epidermal necrolysis: does immunoglobulin make a difference? J Burn Care Rehabil 2004;25:81-88.
58. Campione E, Marulli GC, Carrozzo AM, Chimenti MS, Costanzo A, Bianchi L: High-dose intravenous immunoglobulin for severe drug reactions: efficacy in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Acta Derm Venereol 2003;83:430-432.
59. Prins C, Kerdel FA, Padilla RS, Hunziker T, Chimenti S, Viard I, Mauri DN, Flynn K, Trent J, Margolis DJ, Saurat JH, French LE, TEN-IVIG Study Group: Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins: multicenter retrospective analysis of 48 consecutive cases. Arch Dermatol 2003;139:26-32.
60. Shortt R, Gomez M, Mittman N, Cartotto R: Intravenous immunoglobulin does not improve outcome in toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Burn Care Rehabil 2004;25:246-255.
61. Tan AW, Thong BY, Yip LW, Chng HH, Ng SK: High-dose intravenous immunoglobulins in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis: an Asian series. J Dermatol 2005;32:1-6.
62. Trent JT, Kirsner RS, Romanelli P, Kerdel FA: Analysis of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis using SCORTEN: The University of Miami Experience. Arch Dermatol 2003;139:39-43.
63. Rajaratnam R, Mann C, Balasubramaniam P, Marsden JR, Taibjee SM, Shah F, Lim R, Papini R, Moiemen N, Lewis H: Toxic epidermal necrolysis: retrospective analysis of 21 consecutive cases managed at a tertiary centre. Clin Exp Dermatol 2010;35:853-862.
64. Stella M, Clemente A, Bollero D, Risso D, Dalmasso P: Toxic epidermal necrolysis (TEN) and Stevens-Johnson syndrome (SJS): experience with high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins and topical conservative approach. A retrospective analysis. Burns 2007;33:452-459.
65. Trent JT, Fangchao M, Kerdel F, Fie S, French LE, Romanelli P, Kirsner RS: Dose of intravenous immunoglobulin and patient survival in SJS and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Expert Rev Dermatol 2007;2:299-303.
66. Arevalo JM, Lorente JA, Gonzalez-Herrada C, Jimenez-Reyes J: Treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis with cyclosporin A. J Trauma 2000;48: 473-478.
67. Rai R, Srinivas CR: Suprapharmacologic doses of intravenous dexamethasone followed by cyclosporine in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol 2008; 74:263-265.
68. Hashim N, Bandara D, Tan E, Ilchyshyn A: Early cyclosporine treatment of incipient toxic epidermal necrolysis induced by concomitant use of lamotrigine and sodium valproate. Acta Derm Venereol 2004;84:90-91.
69. Robak E, Robak T, Gora-Tybor J, Chojnowski K, Strzelecka B, Waszczykowska E, Sysa-Jedrzejowska A: Toxic epidermal necrolysis in a patient with severe aplastic anemia treated with cyclosporin A and G-CSF. J Med 2001;32:31-39.
70. Valeyrie-Allanore L, Wolkenstein P, Brochard L, Ortonne N, Maitre B, Revuz J, Bagot M, Roujeau J: Open trial of ciclosporin treatment for Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Br J Dermatol 2010;163:847-853.
71. Hunger RE, Hunziker T, Buettiker U, Braathen LR, Yawalkar N: Rapid resolution of toxic epidermal necrolysis with anti-TNF-alpha treatment. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2005;116:923-924.
72. Meiss F, Helmbold P, Meykadeh N, Gaber G, Marsch W, Fischer M: Overlap of acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis and toxic epidermal necrolysis: response to antitumour necrosis factor-alpha antibody infliximab: report of three cases. J Eur Acad Dermatol Venereol 2007;21:717-719.
73. Kamanabroo D, Schmitz-Landgraf W, Czarnetzki BM: Plasmapheresis in severe drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Dermatol 1985;121: 1548-1549.
74. Lissia M, Figus A, Rubino C: Intravenous immunoglobulins and plasmapheresis combined treatment in patients with severe toxic epidermal necrolysis: preliminary report. Br J Plast Surg 2005;58:504-510.
75. Yamada H, Takamori K, Yaguchi H, Ogawa H: A study of the efficacy of plasmapheresis for the treatment of drug induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Ther Apher 1998;2:153-156.
76. Furubacke A, Berlin G, Anderson C, Sjoberg F: Lack of significant treatment effect of plasma exchange in the treatment of drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis? Intensive Care Med 1999;25:1307-1310.
77. Frangogiannis NG, Boridy I, Mazhar M, Mathews R, Gangopadhyay S, Cate T: Cyclophosphamide in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis. South Med J 1996;89:1001-1003.
78. Heng MC, Allen SG: Efficacy of cyclophosphamide in toxic epidermal necrolysis. Clinical and pathophysiologic aspects. J Am Acad Dermatol 1991;25:778-786.
79. Sheridan RL, Schulz JT, Ryan CM, Schnitzer JJ, Lawlor D, Driscoll DN, Donelan MB, Tompkins RG: Long-term consequences of toxic epidermal necrolysis in children. Pediatrics 2002;109:74-78.
80. Barrera JE, Meyers AD, Hartford EC: Hypopharyngeal stenosis and dysphagia complicating toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 1998;124:1375-1376.
81. Herman TE, Kushner DC, Cleveland RH: Esophageal stricture secondary to drug-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Pediatr Radiol 1984;14: 439-440.
82. Romano A, Di Fonso M, Pocobelli D, Giannarini L, Venuti A, Garcovich A: Two cases of toxic epidermal necrolysis caused by delayed hypersensitivity to beta-lactam antibiotics. J Investig Allergol Clin Immunol 1993;3:53-55.
83. Tagami H, Tatsuta K, Iwatski K, Yamada M: Delayed hypersensitivity in ampicillin-induced toxic epidermal necrolysis. Arch Dermatol 1983;119:910-913.
84. Asensio-Sanchez VM: Toxic epidermal necrolysis following dorzolamide eyedrops (in Spanish). An Med Interna 2008;25:47-48.
85. Schmutz JL, Barbaud A, Trechot P: Polymorphous bullous erythema and trihexiphenidyl (or why police questioning is not always the most productive method) (in French). Ann Dermatol Venereol 2007;134:899.
86. Wolkenstein P, Chosidow O, Flechet ML, Robbiola O, Paul M, Dume L, Revuz J, Roujeau JC: Patch testing in severe cutaneous adverse drug reactions, including Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis. Contact Dermatitis 1996;35: 234-236.
87. Pichler WJ, Tilch J: The lymphocyte transformation test in the diagnosis of drug hypersensitivity. Allergy 2004;59:809-820.
88. Kano Y, Hirahara K, Mitsuyama Y, Takahashi R, Shiohara T: Utility of the lymphocyte transformation test in the diagnosis of drug sensitivity: dependence on its timing and the type of drug eruption. Allergy 2007;62:1439-1444.
89. Beeler A, Zaccaria L, Kawabata T, Gerber BO, Pichler WJ: CD69 upregulation on T cells as an in vitro marker for delayed-type drug hypersensitivity. Allergy 2008;63:181-188.
90. Zawodniak A, Lochmatter P, Yerly D, Kawabata T, Lerch M, Yawalkar N, Pichler WJ: In vitro detection of cytotoxic T and NK cells in peripheral blood of patients with various drug-induced skin diseases. Allergy 2009;65:376-384.
91. Bastuji-Garin S, Fouchard N, Bertocchi M, Roujeau JC, Revuz J, Wolkenstein P: SCORTEN: a severityof-illness score for toxic epidermal necrolysis. J Invest Dermatol 2000;115:149-153.
92. Yun SJ, Choi MS, Piao MS, Lee JB, Kim SJ, Won YH, Lee SC: Serum lactate dehydrogenase is a novel marker for the evaluation of disease severity in the early stage of toxic epidermal necrolysis. Dermatology 2008;217:254-259.
93. Yang Y, Xu J, Li F, Zhu X: Combination therapy of intravenous immunoglobulin and corticosteroid in the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson syndrome: a retrospective comparative study in China. Int J Dermatol 2009;48: 1122-1128.
94. Molgó M, Carreño N, Hoyos-Bachiloglu R, Andresen M, González S: Use of intravenous immunoglobulin for the treatment of toxic epidermal necrolysis and Stevens-Johnson/toxic epidermal necrolysis overlap syndrome. Review of 15 cases. Rev Med Chil 2009;137:383-389.
95. Chen J, Wang B, Zeng Y, Xu H: High-dose intravenous immunoglobulins in the treatment of Stevens-Johnson syndrome and toxic epidermal necrolysis in Chinese patients: a retrospective study of 82 cases. Eur J Dermatol 2010;20:743-747.