Direct and semi-direct aerosol radiative effect on the Mediterranean climate variability using a coupled regional climate system model

Climate Dynamics

Volumn 44, Issue 3-4, 2015, Pages 1127-1155

  Nabat, Pierre ^a   Somot, Samuel ^a   Mallet, Marc ^b   Sevault, Florence ^a   Chiacchio, Marc ^c   Wild, Martin ^d  

^a CENTRE NATIONAL DE RECHERCHES MÉTÉOROLOGIQUES   (France)

^b LABORATOIRE D AÉROLOGIE   (France)

^c ABDUS SALAM INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR THEORETICAL PHYSICS   (Italy)

^d ETH Zurich   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

Aerosol; Dust; Mediterranean; Radiation; Regional climate

Indexed keywords

EID: 84925614859     PISSN: 09307575     EISSN: 14320894     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s00382-014-2205-6     Document Type: Article

References (102)

1. Albrecht BA (1989) Aerosols, cloud microphysics, and fractional cloudiness. Science 245:1227–1230. doi:10.1126/science.245.4923.1227
2. Allen RJ, Sherwood SC (2010) Aerosol-cloud semi-direct effect and land-sea temperature contrast in a gcm. Geophys Res Lett 37(L07):702. doi:10.1029/2010GL042759
3. Artale V, Calmanti S, Carillo A, Dell’Aquila A, Herrmann M, Pisacane G, Ruti PM, Sannino G, Struglia MV, Giorgi F, Bi X, Pal JS, Rauscher S (2010) An atmosphere-ocean regional climate model for the mediterranean area: assessment of a present climate simulation. Clim Dyn 35(5):721–740. doi:10.1007/s00382-009-0691-8
4. Balmaseda MA, Mogensen K, Molteni F, Weaver AT (2010) The nemovar-combine ocean re-analysis. Tech. Rep. 1, COMBINE
5. Bangert M, Kottmeier C, Vogel B, Vogel H (2011) Regional scale effects of the aerosol cloud interaction simulated with an online coupled comprehensive chemistry model. Atmos Chem Phys 11:4411–4423. doi:10.5194/acp-12-4045-2012
6. Basart S, Pérez C, Cuevas E, Baldasano JM, Gobbi GP (2009) Aerosol characterization in northern africa, northeastern atlantic, mediterranean basin and middle east from direct-sun aeronet observations. Atmos Chem Phys 9:8265–8282
7. Benas N, Hatzianastassiou N, Matsoukas C, Fotiadi A, Mihalopoulos N, Vardavas I (2011) Aerosol shortwave direct radiative effect and forcing based on modis level 2 data in the eastern mediterranean (crete). Atmos Chem Phys 11:12,647–12,662. doi:10.5194/acp-11-12647-2011
8. Benedetti A, Kaiser JW, Morcrette JJ (2011) [global climate] aerosols [in “state of the climate in 2010”]. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 92(6):S65–S67
9. Bergamo A, Tafuro AM, Kinne S, Tomasi FD, Perrone MR (2008) Monthly-averaged anthropogenic aerosol direct radiative forcing over the mediterranean based on aeronet aerosol properties. Atmos Chem Phys 8:6995–7014
10. Berry DI, Kent EC (2009) A new air-sea interaction gridded dataset from icoads with uncertainty estimates. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 90:645–656. doi:10.1175/2008BAMS2639.1
11. Beuvier J, Sevault F, Herrmann M, Kontoyiannis H, Ludwig W, Rixen M, Stanev E, Béranger K, Somot S (2010) Modeling the mediterranean sea interannual variability during 1961–2000: focus on the eastern mediterranean transient. J Geophys Res 115(C08):017. doi:10.1029/2009JC005950
12. Carslaw KS, Lee LA, Reddington CL, Pringle KJ, Rap A, Forster PM, Mann GW, Spracklen DV, Woodhouse MT, Regayre LA, Pierce JR (2013) Large contribution of natural aerosols to uncertainty in indirect forcing. Nature 503:67–79. doi:10.1038/nature12674
13. Christensen OB, Gaertner MA, Prego JA, Polcher J (2001) Internal variability of regional climate models. Clim Dyn 17:875–887
14. Coakley JA, Cess RD, Yurevich FB (1983) The effect of tropospheric aerosols on the earths radiation budget: a parameterization for climate models. J Atmos Sci 40:116–138
15. Colin J, Déqué M, Radu R, Somot S (2010) Sensitivity study of heavy precipitation in limited area model climate simulations: influence of the size of the domain and the use of the spectral nudging technique. Tellus 62A:591–604
16. Decharme B, Alkama R, Douville H, Becker M, Cazenave A (2010) Global evaluation of the isba-trip continental hydrological system. part ii: Uncertainties in river routing simulation related to flow velocity and groundwater storage. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 11:601–617. doi:10.1175/2010JHM1212.1
17. Dee DP, Uppala SM, Simmons AJ, Berrisford P, Poli P, Kobayashi S, Andrae U, Balmaseda MA, Balsamo G, Bauer P, Bechtold P, Beljaars ACM, van de Berg L, Bidlot J, Bormann N, Delsol C, Dragani R, Fuentes M, Geer AJ, Haimbergere L, Healy SB, Hersbach H, Hólm EV, Isaksen L, Kallberg P, Köhler M, Matricardi M, McNally AP, Monge-Sanzf BM, Morcrette JJ, Park BK, Peubey C, de Rosnaya P, Tavolato C, Thépaut JN, Vitart F (2011) The era-interim reanalysis: configuration and performance of the data assimilation system. Q J R Meteorol Soc 137:553–597. doi:10.1002/qj.828
18. Déqué M, Somot S (2008) Extreme precipitation and high resolution with aladin. Idöjaras QJ Hung Meteorol Serv 112(3–4):179–190
19. Dufresne JL, Gautier C, Ricchiazzi P (2002) Longwave scattering effects of mineral aerosols. J Atmos Sci 59:1959–1966. doi:10.1175/1520-0469(2002)059<1959:LSEOMA>2.0.CO;2
20. Ekman AML, Rodhe H (2003) Regional temperature response due to indirect sulfate aerosol forcing: impact of model resolution. Clim Dyn 21:1–10. doi:10.1007/s00382-003-0311-y
21. Evan AT, Vimont DJ, Heindiger AK, Kossin JP, Bennartz R (2009) The role of aerosols in the evolution of tropical north atlantic ocean temperature anomalies. Science 324:778–781. doi:10.1126/science.1167404
22. Evan AT, Foltz GR, Zhang D, Vimont DJ (2011) Influence of african dust on ocean–atmosphere variability in the tropical atlantic. Nat Geosci 4:762–765. doi:10.1038/NGEO1276
23. Farda A, Déqué M, Somot S, Horanyi A, Spiridonov V, Toth H (2010) Model aladin as regional climate model for central and eastern europe. Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica 54:313–332. doi:10.1007/s11200-010-0017-7
24. Formenti P, Boucher O, Reiner T, Sprung D, Andreae MO, Wendisch M, Wex H, Kindred D, Tzortziou M, Vasaras A, Zerefos C (2002) Staaarte-med 1998 summer airborne measurements over the aegean sea 2. Aerosol scattering and absorption, and radiative calculations. J Geophys Res 107:D21. doi:10.1029/2001JD001536
25. Gao X, Pal JS, Giorgi F (2006) Projected changes in mean and extreme precipitation over the mediterranean region from a high resolution double nested rcm simulation. Geophys Res Lett 33(L03):706. doi:10.1029/2005GL024954
26. Geleyn J (1988) Interpolation of wind, temperature and humidity values from model levels to the height of measurement. Tellus 40A:347–351
27. Gibelin AL, Déqué M (2003) Anthropogenic climate change over the mediterranean region simulated by a global variable resolution model. Clim Dyn 20(4):327–339. doi:10.1007/s00382-002-0277-1
28. Gilgen H, Ohmura A (1999) The global energy balance archive. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 80:831
29. Giorgi F, Lionello P (2008) Climate change projections for the mediterranean region. Glob Planet Change 63:90–104. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.09.005
30. Giorgi F, Bi X, Qian Y (2002) Direct radiative forcing and regional climatic effects of anthropogenic aerosols over east asia: a regional coupled climate-chemistry/aerosol model study. J Geophys Res 107:D20. doi:10.1029/2001JD001066
31. Giorgi F, Bi X, Qian Y (2003) Indirect vs. direct effects of anthropogenic sulfate on the climate of east asia as simulated with a regional coupled climate-chemistry/aerosol model. Clim Change 58:345–376
32. Giorgi F, Coppola E, Solmon F, Mariotti L, Sylla MB, Bi X, Elguindi N, Diro GT, Nair V, Giuliani G, Cozzini S, Guettler I, O’Brien TA, Tawfik AB, Shalaby A, Zakey AS, Steiner AL, Stordal F, Sloan LC, Brankovic C (2012) Regcm4: model description and preliminary tests over multiple cordex domains. Clim Res 52:7–29. doi:10.3354/cr01018
33. Gkikas A, Houssos E, Hatzianastassiou N, Papadimas C, Bartzokas A (2012) Synoptic conditions favouring the occurrence of aerosol episodes over the broader mediterranean basin. Q J R Meteorol Soc 138:932–949. doi:10.1002/qj.978
34. Guieu C, Dulac F, Desboeufs K, Wagener T, Pulido-Villena E, Grisoni JM, Louis F, Ridame C, Blain S, Brunet C, Nguyen EB, Tran S, Labiadh M, Dominici JM (2010) Large clean mesocosms and simulated dust deposition: a new methodology to investigate responses of marine oligotrophic ecosystems to atmospheric inputs. Biogeosciences 7:2765–2784. doi:10.5194/bg-7-2765-2010
35. Hagemann S, Machenhauer B, Jones R, Christensen OB, Deque M, Jacob D, Vidale PL (2004) Evaluation of water and energy budgets in regional climate models applied over europe. Clim Dyn 23:547–567. doi:10.1007/s00382-004-0444-7
36. Hansen J, Sato M, Ruedy R (1997) Radiative forcing and climate response. J Geophys Res 102:6831–6864. doi:10.1029/96JD03436
37. Harris I, Jones P, Osborn T, Lister D (2013) Updated high-resolution grids of monthly climatic observations—the cru ts3.10 dataset. Int J Climatol 34:623–642. doi:10.1002/joc.3711
38. Haylock MR, Hofstra N, Tank AMGK, Klok EJ, Jones PD, New M (2008) A european daily high-resolution gridded data set of surface temperature and precipitation. J Geophys Res 113(D20):119. doi:10.1029/2008JD010201
39. Herrmann M, Somot S, Calmanti S, Dubois C, Sevault F (2011) Representation of spatial and temporal variability of daily wind speed and of intense wind events over the mediterranean sea using dynamical downscaling: impact of the regional climate model configuration. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 11:1983–2001. doi:10.5194/nhess-11-1983-2011
40. Hsieh WC, Collins WD, Liu Y, Chiang JCH, Shie CL, Caldeira K, Cao L (2013) Climate response due to carbonaceous aerosols and aerosol-induced sst effects in ncar community atmospheric model cam3.5. Atmos Chem Phys 13:7489–7510. doi:10.5194/acp-13-7489-2013
41. IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, core writing team, pachauri, r.k and reisinger, a. edn. IPCC, Geneva, Switzerland
42. Kaufman YJ, Tanré D, Boucher O (2002) A satellite view of aerosolsin the climate system. Nature 419:215–223
43. Krzic A, Tosic I, Djurdjevic V, Veljovic K, Rajkovic B (2011) Changes in climate indices for serbia according to the sres-a1b and sres-a2 scenarios. Clim Res 49:73–86. doi:10.3354/cr01008
44. Laprise R (2008) Regional climate modelling. J Comput Phys 227:3641–3666
45. Lelieveld J, Berresheim H, Borrmann S, Crutzen PJ, Dentener FJ, Fischer H, Feichter J, Flatau PJ, Heland J, Holzinger R, Korrmann R, Lawrence MG, Levin Z, Markowicz KM, Mihalopoulos N, Minikin A, Ramanathan V, de Reus M, Roelofs GJ, Scheeren HA, Sciare J, Schlager H, Schultz M, Siegmund P, Steil B, Stephanou EG, Stier P, Traub M, Warneke C, Williams J, Ziereis H (2002) Global air pollution crossroads over the mediterranean. Science 298:794–799. doi:10.1126/science.1075457
46. Lionello P, Malanotte-Rizzoli P, Boscolo R, Alpert P, Artale V, Li L, Luterbacher J, May W, Trigo R, Tsimplis M, Ulbrich U, Xoplaki E (2006) The mediterranean climate: an overview of the main characteristics and issues. Dev Earth Environ Sci 4:1–26. doi:10.1016/S1571-9197(06)80003-0
47. Loeb NG, Wielicki BA, Doelling DR, Smith GL, Keyes DF, Kato S, Manalo-Smith N, Wong T (2009) Toward optimal closure of the earth’s top-of-atmosphere radiation budget. J Clim 22:748–766. doi:10.1175/2008JCLI2637.1
48. Lohmann U, Feichter J (2005) Global indirect aerosol effects: a review. Atmos Chem Phys 5:715–737. doi:10.5194/acp-5-715-2005
49. Louis J (1979) A parametric model of vertical eddy fluxes in the atmosphere. Bound-Lay Meteorol 17:187–202
50. Lucas-Picher P, Caya D, de Elía R, Laprise R (2008) Investigation of regional climate models’ internal variability with a ten-member ensemble of 10-year simulations over a large domain. Clim Dyn 31:927–940. doi:10.1007/s00382-008-0384-8
51. L’Hévéder B, Li L, Sevault F, Somot S (2012) Interannual variability of deep convection in the northwestern mediterranean simulated with a coupled aorcm. Clim Dyn pp 1–24: doi:10.1007/s00382-012-1527-5
52. Madec G (2008) Nemo ocean engine. Tech. rep, IPSL
53. Mallet M, Pont V, Liousse C, Roger JC, Dubuisson P (2006) Simulation of aerosol radiative properties with the orisam-rad model during a pollution event (escompte 2001). Atmos Environ 40:7696–7705. doi:10.1016/j.atmosenv.2006.08.031
54. Mariotti A, Dell’Aquila A (2012) Decadal climate variability in the mediterranean region: roles of large-scale forcings and regional processes. Clim Dyn 38:1129–1145. doi:10.1007/s00382-011-1056-7
55. Markowicz KM, Flatau PJ, Ramana W, Crutzen PJ, Ramanathan V (2002) Absorbing mediterranean aerosols lead to a large reduction in the solar radiation at the surface. Geophys Res Lett 29:1968. doi:10.1029/2002GL015767
56. Martinez-Avellaneda N, Serra N, Minnett PJ, Stammer D (2010) Response of the eastern subtropical atlantic sst to saharan dust: a modeling and observational study. J Geophys Res 115(C08):015. doi:10.1029/2009JC005692
57. Marullo S, Nardelli BB, Guarracino M, Santoleri R (2007) Observing the mediterranean sea from space: 21 years of pathfinder-avhrr sea surface temperatures (1985 to 2005): re-analysis and validation. Ocean sc 3:299–310
58. Meier J, Tegen I, Heinold B, Wolke R (2012) Direct and semi-direct radiative effects of absorbing aerosols in europe: results from a regional model. Geophys Res Lett 39(L09):802. doi:10.1029/2012GL050994
59. Meloni D, Sarra AD, DeLuisi J, Iorio TD, Fiocco G, Junkermann W, Pace G (2003) Tropospheric aerosols in the mediterranean: 2. Radiative effects through model simulations and measurements. J Geophys Res 108:4317. doi:10.1029/2002JD002807
60. Meloni D, di Sarra A, Iorio TD, Fiocco G (2004) Direct radiative forcing of saharan dust in the mediterranean from measurements at lampedusa island and misr space-borne observations. J Geophys Res 109(D08):206. doi:10.1029/2003JD003960
61. Miller RL, Tegen I (1998) Climate response to soil dust aerosols. J Clim 11:3247–3267. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(1998)011<3247:CRTSDA>2.0.CO;2
62. Mitchell JMJ (1971) The effect of atmospheric aerosols on climate with special reference to temperature near the earth’s surface. J Appl Meteorol 10:703–714
63. Morcrette JJ (1989) Description of the radiation scheme in the ecmwf model. Tech. rep, ECMWF
64. Moulin C, Lambert CE, Dayan U, Masson V, Ramonet M, Bousquet P, Legrand M, Balkanski YJ, Guelle W, Marticorena B, Bergametti G, Dulac F (1998) Satellite climatology of african dust transport in the mediterranean atmosphere. J Geophys Res 103:13,137–13,144. doi:10.1029/98JD00171
65. Nabat P, Solmon F, Mallet M, Kok JF, Somot S (2012) Dust emission size distribution impact on aerosol budget and radiative forcing over the mediterranean region: a regional climate model approach. Atmos Chem Phys 12:10,545–10,567. doi:10.5194/acp-12-10545-2012
66. Nabat P, Somot S, Mallet M, Chiapello I, Morcrette JJ, Solmon F, Szopa S, Dulac F, Collins W, Ghan S, Horowitz LW, Lamarque JF, Lee YH, Naik V, Nagashima T, Shindell D, Skeie R (2013) A 4-d climatology (1979–2009) of the monthly tropospheric aerosol optical depth distribution over the mediterranean region from a comparative evaluation and blending of remote sensing and model products. Atmos Meas Tech 6:1287–1314. doi:10.5194/amt-6-1287-2013
67. Noilhan J, Mahfouf JF (1996) The isba land surface parameterisation scheme. Global Planet Change 13:145–159. doi:10.1016/0921-8181(95)00043-7
68. Ohmura A, Dutton EG, Forgan B, Fröhlich C, Gilgen H, Hegner H, Heimo A, König-Langlo G, McArthur B, Müller G, Philipona R, Pinker R, Whitlock CH, Dehne K, Wild M (1998) Baseline surface radiation network (bsrn/wcrp): new precision radiometry for climate research. Bull Am Meteorol Soc 79:2115
69. Oki T, Sud YC (1998) Design of total runoff integrating pathways (trip)-a global river channel network. Earth Interact 2:1–36
70. Papadimas CD, Hatzianastassiou N, Matsoukas C, Kanakidou M, Mihalopoulos N, Vardavas I (2012) The direct effect of aerosols on solar radiation over the broader mediterranean basin. Atmos Chem Phys 12:7165–7185. doi:10.5194/acp-12-7165-2012
71. Radu R, Déqué M, Somot S (2008) Spectral nudging in a spectral regional climate model. Tellus 60A:898–910. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00341.x
72. Rebetez M, Dupont O, Giroud M (2008) An analysis of the July 2006 heatwave extent in europe compared to the record year of 2003. Theor Appl Climatol 95:1–7. doi:10.1007/s00704-007-0370-9
73. Rodá F, Bellot J, Avila A, Escarré A, nol JP, Terradas J (1993) Saharan dust and the atmospheric inputs of elements and alkalinity to mediterranean ecosystems. Water Air Soil Pollut 66(3–4):277–288. doi:10.1007/BF00479851
74. Roger JC, Mallet M, Dubuisson P, Cachier H, Vermote E, Dubovik O, Despiau S (2006) A synergetic approach for estimating the local direct aerosol forcing: application to an urban zone during the expérience sur site pour contraindre les modèles de pollution et de transport d’emission (escompte) experiment. J Geophys Res 111(D13):208. doi:10.1029/2005JD006361
75. Rosenfeld D, Rudich Y, Lahav R (2001) Desert dust suppressing precipitation: a possible desertification feedback loop. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98:5975–5980. doi:10.1073/pnas.101122798
76. Sanchez-Gomez E, Somot S, Josey SA, Dubois C, Elguindi N, Déqué M (2011) Evaluation of mediterranean sea water and heat budgets simulated by an ensemble of high resolution regional climate models. Clim Dyn 37:2067–2086. doi:10.1007/s00382-011-1012-6
77. Santese M, Perrone MR, Zakey AS, Tomasi FD, Giorgi F (2010) Modeling of saharan dust outbreaks over the mediterranean by regcm3: case studies. Atmos Chem Phys 10:133–156
78. Schneider U, Fuchs T, Meyer-Christoffer A, Rudolf B (2008) Global precipitation analysis products of the gpcc. Tech. rep., Deutscher Wetterdienst, Offenbach a. M., Germany
79. Schroeder K, Ribotti A, Borghini M, Sorgente R, Perilli A, Gasparini GP (2008) An extensive western mediterranean deep water renewal between 2004 and 2006. Geophys Res Lett 35(L18):605. doi:10.1029/2008GL035146
80. Sevault F, Somot S, Alias A, Dubois C, Lebeaupin-Brossier C, Nabat P, Adloff F, Déqué M (2013) A numerical simulation of the 1980–2011 era-interim period for the mediterranean with the regional climate system model cnrm-rcsm4. Tech. Rep. 31, CNRM, Météo France
81. Somot S, Sevault F, Déqué M (2006) Transient climate change scenario simulation of the mediterranean sea for the twenty-first century using a high-resolution ocean circulation model. Clim Dyn 27:851–879. doi:10.1007/s00382-006-0167-z
82. Somot S, Sevault F, Déqué M, Crépon M (2008) 21st century climate change scenario for the mediterranean using a coupled atmosphere-ocean regional climate model. Global Planet Change 63:112–126. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2007.10.003
83. Spyrou C, Kallos G, Mitsakou C, Athanasiadis P, Kalogeri C, Iacono M (2013) Modeling the radiative effects of desert dust on weather and regional climate. Atmos Chem Phys 13:5489–5504. doi:10.5194/acp-13-5489-2013
84. Stackhouse PW, Gupta SK, Cox SJ, Chiacchio M, Mikovitz C (2000) The wcrp/gewex surface radiation budget project release 2: an assessment of surface fluxes at 1 degree resolution. In: Smith WL and Timofeyev YM (eds) Symposium international radiation, 2000: current problems in atmospheric radiation. St. Petersburg, Russia
85. Szczypta C, Decharme B, Carrer D, Calvet JC, Lafont S, Somot S, Faroux S, Martin E (2012) Impact of precipitation and land biophysical variables on the simulated discharge of european and mediterranean rivers. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 16:3351–3370. doi:10.5194/hess-16-3351-2012
86. Tegen I, Hollrig P, Chin M, Fung I, Jacob D, Penner J (1997) Contribution of different aerosol species to the global aerosol extinction optical thickness: estimates from model results. J Geophys Res 102:23,895–23,915
87. Twomey S (1977) The influence of pollution on the shortwave albedo of clouds. J Atmos Sci 34:1149–1152
88. Valcke S (2013) The oasis3 coupler: a European climate modelling community software. Geosci Model Dev 6:373–388. doi:10.5194/gmd-6-373-2013
89. Vogel B, Vogel H, Bümer D, Bangert M, Lundgren K, Rinke R, Stanelle T (2009) The comprehensive model system cosmo-art - radiative impact of aerosol on the state of the atmosphere on the regional scale. Atmos Chem Phys 9:8661–8680. doi:10.5194/acp-9-8661-2009
90. Voldoire A, Sanchez-Gomez E, y Mélia DS, Decharme B, Cassou C, Sénési S, Valcke S, Beau I, Alias A, Chevallier M, Déqué M, Deshayes J, Douville H, Fernandez E, Madec G, Maisonnave E, Moine MP, Planton S, Saint-Martin D, Szopa S, Tyteca S, Alkama R, Belamari S, Braun A, Coquart L, Chauvin F (2012) The cnrm-cm5.1 global climate model: description and basic evaluation. Clim Dyn 40. doi:10.1007/s00382-011-1259-y
91. Wild M (2008) Short-wave and long-wave surface radiation budgets in gcms: a review based on the ipcc-ar4/cmip3 models. Tellus 60:932–945. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0870.2008.00342.x
92. Wild M, Ohmura A, Gilgen H, Roeckner E (1995) Validation of general circulation model radiative fluxes using surface observations. J Clim 8:1309–1324. doi:10.1175/1520-0442
93. Wild M, Dümenil L, Schulz JP (1996) Regional climate simulation with a high resolution GCM: surface hydrology. Clim Dyn 12:755–774
94. Wild M, Ohmura A, Gilgen H, Morcrette JJ, Slingo A (2001) Evaluation of downward longwave radiation in general circulation models. J Clim 14:3227–3239. doi:10.1175/1520-0442(2001)014
95. Wild M, Long CN, Ohmura A (2006) Evaluation of clear-sky solar fluxes in gcms participating in amip and ipcc-ar4 from a surface perspective. J Geophys Res 111(D01):104. doi:10.1029/2005JD006118
96. Yu L, Jin X, Weller RA (2008) Multidecade global flux datasets from the objectively analyzed air-sea fluxes (oaflux) project: Latent and sensible heat fluxes, ocean evaporation, and related surface meteorological variables. Tech. rep., Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution OAFlux Project Technical Report (OA-2008-01)
97. Yue X, Liao H (2012) Climatic responses to the shortwave and longwave direct radiative effects of sea salt aerosol in present day and the last glacial maximum. Clim Dyn 39:3019–3040. doi:10.1007/s00382-012-1312-5
98. Yue X, Liao H, Wang HJ, Li SL, Tang JP (2011) Role of sea surface temperature responses in simulation of the climatic effect of mineral dust aerosol. Atmos Chem Phys 11:6049–6062. doi:10.5194/acp-11-6049-2011
99. Zanis P (2009) A study on the direct effect of anthropogenic aerosols on near surface air temperature over southeastern europe during summer 2000 based on regional climate modeling. Annales Geophysicae 27:3977–3988
100. Zanis P, Ntogras C, Zakey A, Pytharoulis I, Karacostas T (2012) Regional climate feedback of anthropogenic aerosols over europe using regcm3. Clim Res 52:267–278. doi:10.3354/cr01070
101. Zhang YC, Rossow WB, Lacis AA, Oinas V, Mishchenko MI (2004) Calculation of radiative fluxes from the surface to top of atmosphere based on isccp and other global data sets: Refinements of the radiative transfer model and the input data. J Geophys Res 109:D19. doi:10.1029/2003JD004457
102. Zubler EM, Folini D, Lohmann U, Lüthi D, Schär C, Wild M (2011) Simulation of dimming and brightening in europe from 1958 to 2001 using a regional climate model. J Geophys Res 116(D18):205. doi:10.1029/2010JD015396