Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children

Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews

Volumn 2017, Issue 6, 2015, Pages

  Shaikh, Nader ^a   Borrell, Jessica L ^b   Evron, Josh ^c   Leeflang, Mariska Mg ^d  

^a CHILDREN S HOSPITAL OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

^b BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^c TULANE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^d ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

C REACTIVE PROTEIN; PROCALCITONIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CALCITONIN;

ACUTE PYELONEPHRITIS; BLOOD SAMPLING; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST ACCURACY STUDY; ERYTHROCYTE SEDIMENTATION RATE; FOLLOW UP; HUMAN; INTERMETHOD COMPARISON; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); METHODOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; URINARY TRACT INFECTION; ACUTE DISEASE; BLOOD; CHILD; COMPLICATION; CYSTITIS; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; META ANALYSIS; PYELONEPHRITIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC);

ACUTE DISEASE; BIOMARKERS; BLOOD SEDIMENTATION; C-REACTIVE PROTEIN; CALCITONIN; CHILD; CYSTITIS; DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; PYELONEPHRITIS; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AS TOPIC; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; URINARY TRACT INFECTIONS;

EID: 84925320953     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1469493X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009185.pub2     Document Type: Review

References (164)

1. Ansari Gilani K, Modaresi Esfeh J, Gholamrezanezhad A, Gholami A, Mamishi S, Eftekhari M, et al. Predictors of abnormal renal cortical scintigraphy in children with first urinary tract infection: the importance of time factor. International Urology & Nephrology 2010;42(4):1041-7. [MEDLINE: 19798584]
2. Benador D, Benador N, Slosman D, Mermillod B, Girardin E. Are younger children at highest risk of renal sequelae after pyelonephritis?. Lancet 1997;349(9044):17-9. [MEDLINE: 8988117]
3. Girardin E, Benador N, Gendrel D, Greder C, Benador D, Bohuon C, et al. Procalcitonin is a marker of severity of renal lesions in pyelonephritis [abstract]. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 1997;9(Program & Abstracts Issue):125A. [BIOSIS Previews: PREV199800022706]
4. Biggi A, Dardanelli L, Pomero G, Cussino P, Noello C, Sernia O, et al. Acute renal cortical scintigraphy in children with a first urinary tract infection. Pediatric Nephrology 2001;16(9):733-8. [MEDLINE: 11511988]
5. Bigot S, Leblond P, Foucher C, Hue V, D'Herbomez M, Foulard M. Usefulness of procalcitonin for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children [Apport du dosage de la procalcitonine pour le diagnostic de pyélonéphrite aiguë de l'enfant]. Archives de Pédiatrie 2005;12(7):1075-80. [MEDLINE: 15893462]
6. Bressan S, Andreola B, Zucchetta P, Montini G, Burei M, Perilongo G, et al. Procalcitonin as a predictor of renal scarring in infants and young children. Pediatric Nephrology 2009;24(6):1199-204. [MEDLINE: 19205751]
7. Donoso G, Lobo G, Arnello F, Arteaga MP, Hevia P, Rosati P, et al. Tc 99M DMSA scintigraphy in children with a first episode of acute pyelonephritis: correlation with laboratory tests, echography and the presence of vesico-ureteral reflux [Cintigrama renal DMSA en ninos con primera pielonefritis aguda: correlacion con examenes de laboratorio, ecografia y la presencia de reflujo vesico ureteral]. Revista Medica de Chile 2004;132(1):58-64. [MEDLINE: 15379054]
8. Fretzayas A, Moustaki M, Gourgiotis D, Bossios A, Koukoutsakis P, Stavrinadis C, et al. Polymorphonuclear elastase as a diagnostic marker of acute pyelonephritis in children. Pediatrics 2000;105(2):E28. [MEDLINE: 10654988]
9. Garin EH, Olavarria F, Araya C, Broussain M, Barrera C, Young L. Diagnostic significance of clinical and laboratory findings to localize site of urinary infection. Pediatric Nephrology 2007;22(7):1002-6. [MEDLINE: 17375337]
10. Hoberman A, Wald ER, Hickey RW, Baskin M, Charron M, Majd M, et al. Oral versus initial intravenous therapy for urinary tract infections in young febrile children. Pediatrics 1999;104(1 Pt 1):79-86. [MEDLINE: 10390264]
11. Kotoula A, Gardikis S, Tsalkidis A, Mantadakis E, Zisimopoulos A, Deftereos S, et al. Comparison of serum procalcitonin and commonly used inflammatory markers for the early prediction of acute pyelonephritis in children [abstract]. European Urology Supplements 2008;7(3):247. [DOI: 10.1016/S1569-9056(08)60704-6; Biosis Previews: PREV200800283210]
12. Kotoula A, Gardikis S, Tsalkidis A, Mantadakis E, Zissimopoulos A, Deftereos S, et al. Comparative efficacies of procalcitonin and conventional inflammatory markers for prediction of renal parenchymal inflammation in pediatric first urinary tract infection. Urology 2009;73(4):782-6. [MEDLINE: 19152962]
13. Kotoula A, Gardikis S, Tsalkidis A, Mantadakis E, Zissimopoulos A, Kambouri, K, et al. Procalcitonin for the early prediction of renal parenchymal involvement in children with UTI: preliminary results. International Urology & Nephrology 2009;41(2):393-9. [MEDLINE: 18836845]
14. Kuzmanovska D, Sahpazova E, Bogdanovska A, Konstadinova R. Parenchymal renal damage in children with urinary tract infection [Parenhimna bubrezna ostecenja u djece sa infekcijom mokracnog sustava]. Paediatria Croatica, Supplement 2008;52(Suppl 1):212-7. [EMBASE: 2010638845]
15. Levtchenko E, Lahy C, Levy J, Ham H, Piepsz A. Treatment of children with acute pyelonephritis: a prospective randomized study. Pediatric Nephrology 2001;16(11):878-84. [MEDLINE: 11685593]
16. Levtchenko EN, Lahy C, Levy J, Ham HR, Piepsz A. Role of Tc-99m DMSA scintigraphy in the diagnosis of culture negative pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 2001;16(6):503-6. [MEDLINE: 11420916]
17. Martín Aguado MJ, Canals Baeza A, Vioque López J, Tarazona JL, Flores Serrano J. Technetium-99m-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy in the first febrile urinary tract infection in children [Gammagrafía con tecnecio-99m-ácido dimercaptosuccínico en el estudio de la primera infección urinaria febril del niño]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 2000;52(1):23-30. [MEDLINE: 11003855]
18. Melis K, Vandevivere J, Hoskens C, Vervaet A, Sand A, Van Acker KJ. Involvement of the renal parenchyma in acute urinary tract infection: the contribution of 99mTc dimercaptosuccinic acid scan. European Journal of Pediatrics 1992;151(7):536-9. [MEDLINE: 1327798]
19. Mohkam M, Maham S, Rahmani A, Naghi I, Otokesh B, Raiiati H, et al. Technetium Tc 99m dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scintigraphy in children with acute pyelonephritis: correlation with other imaging tests. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases 2010;4(4):297-301. [MEDLINE: 20852370]
20. Montini G, Toffolo A, Zucchetta P, Dall'Amico R, Gobber D, Calderan A, et al. Antibiotic treatment for pyelonephritis in children: multicentre randomised controlled non-inferiority trial. BMJ 2007;335(7616):386. [MEDLINE: 17611232]
21. Nikfar R, Khotaee G, Ataee N, Shams S. Usefulness of procalcitonin rapid test for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children in the emergency department. Pediatrics International 2010;52(2):196-8. [MEDLINE: 20500474]
22. Printza N, Farmaki E, Piretzi K, Arsos G, Kollios K, Papachristou F. Acute phase 99mTc-dimercaptosuccinic acid scan in infants with first episode of febrile urinary tract infection. World Journal of Pediatrics 2012;8(1):52-6. [MEDLINE: 22282382]
23. Sheu JN, Chen MC, Cheng SL, Lee IC, Chen SM, Tsay GJ. Urine interleukin-1beta in children with acute pyelonephritis and renal scarring. Nephrology 2007;12(5):487-93. [MEDLINE: 17803473]
24. Sheu JN, Chen MC, Lue KH, Cheng SL, Lee IC, Chen SM, et al. Serum and urine levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 in children with acute pyelonephritis. Cytokine 2006;36(5-6):276-82. [MEDLINE: 17374489]
25. Sheu JN, Chang HM, Chen SM, Hung TW, Lue KH. The role of procalcitonin for acute pyelonephritis and subsequent renal scarring in infants and young children. Journal of Urology 2011;186(5):2002-8. [MEDLINE: 21944121]
26. Taskinen S, Ronnholm K. Post-pyelonephritic renal scars are not associated with vesicoureteral reflux in children. Journal of Urology 2005;173(4):1345-8. [MEDLINE: 15758798]
27. Tuerlinckx D, Vander Borght T, Glupczynski Y, Galanti L, Roelants V, Krug B, et al. Is procalcitonin a good marker of renal lesion in febrile urinary tract infection?. European Journal of Pediatrics 2005;164(10):651-2. [MEDLINE: 16025299]
28. Wu JH, Chiou YH, Chang JT, Wang HP, Chen YY, Hsieh KS. Urinary tract infection in infants: a single-center clinical analysis in Southern Taiwan. Pediatrics & Neonatology 2012;53(5):283-8. [MEDLINE: 23084719]
29. Zaki M, Al Mutari G, Al Saleh Q, Ramadan DG. Febrile urinary tract infection in children: Role of 99mTc-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scan and other imaging techniques. Annals of Saudi Medicine 1996;16(4):410-3. [EMBASE: 1996271418]
30. Abamor E. Accurate diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children: How helpful is procalcitonin?. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2005;20.
31. Al Kholi UM, Mostafa M, Gaballa A. The role of urinary interleukin-8 level in diagnosis and differentiation between different types of urinary tract infection in children. Current Urology 2010;4(4):203-7. [EMBASE: 2010698409]
32. Andersson L, Preda I, Hahn-Zoric M, Hanson LA, Jodal U, Sixt R, et al. Urinary proteins in children with urinary tract infection. Pediatric Nephrology 2009;24(8):1533-8. [MEDLINE: 19352723]
33. Andreola B, Bressan S, Callegaro S, Liverani A, Plebani M, Da Dalt, L. Procalcitonin and C-reactive protein as diagnostic markers of severe bacterial infections in febrile infants and children in the emergency department. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2007;26(8):672-7. [MEDLINE: 17848876]
34. Asom AA, Bardfeld PA, Kaskel FJ, Katz SP. Clinical value of renal cortical scintigraphy (RCS) in localizing urinary tract infections (UTI) in adolescent females [abstract]. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 1996;7(9):616.
35. Ataei N, Safaian B, Madani A, Esfahani ST, Ataei F. Renal parenchymal changes in children with acute pyelonephritis using DMSA scan and the relationship with certain biologic factors. Tehran University Medical Journal 2009;67(2):125-31. [EMBASE: 2009456653]
36. Ayazi P, Mahyar A, Hashemi HJ, Daneshi MM, Karimzadeh T, Salimi F. Comparison of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein tests in children with urinary tract infection. Iranian Journal of Pediatrics 2009;19(4):381-6. [EMBASE: 2010034009]
37. Belhadj-Tahar H, Coulais Y, Tafani M, Bouissou F. Procalcitonin implication in renal cell apoptosis induced by acute pyelonephritis in children. Infection & Drug Resistance 2008;1:17-20. [PUBMED: 3108721]
38. Benador D, Benador N, Slosman DO, Nussle D, Mermillod B, Girardin E. Cortical scintigraphy in the evaluation of renal parenchymal changes in children with pyelonephritis. Journal of Pediatrics 1994;124(1):17-20. [MEDLINE: 8283371]
39. Benador N, Siegrist C, Gendrel D, Greder C, Benador D, Assicot M, et al. Procalcitonin is a marker of severity of renal lesions in pyelonephritis. Pediatrics 1998;102(6):1422-5. [MEDLINE: 9832579]
40. Benador D, Neuhaus TJ, Papazyan JP, Willi UV, Engel-Bicik I, Nadal D, et al. Randomised controlled trial of three day versus 10 day intravenous antibiotics in acute pyelonephritis: effect on renal scarring. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2001;84(3):241-6. [MEDLINE: 11207174]
41. Benigno V, Di Peri S, Distefano F, Como G, Boncori R. Laboratory parameters as a guide for the radiologic study of infections of the urinary tract in childhood [I parametri di laboratorio come guida allo studio radiologico delle infezioni delle vie urinarie in eta pediatrica]. Pediatria Medica e Chirurgica 1986;8(1):91-3. [MEDLINE: 3725620]
42. Bouissou F, Belmonte D, Danet B, Baunin C, Raynaud N, Salles JP, et al. Value of DMSA renal scintigraphy in acute pyelonephritis in pediatric patients [Interet de la scintigraphie renale au DMSA dans les pyelonephritis aigues de l'enfant]. Annales de Pediatrie 1994;41(1):7-13. [EMBASE: 1994068022]
43. Bouissou F, Munzer C, Decramer S, Roussel B, Novo R, Morin D, et al. Prospective, randomized trial comparing short and long intravenous antibiotic treatment of acute pyelonephritis in children: dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphic evaluation at 9 months. Pediatrics 2008;121(3):e553-60. [MEDLINE: 18267977]
44. Brouhard BH. Early (99m)Tc dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy in symptomatic first-time urinary tract infection. Clinical Pediatrics 1997;36(6):366-7. [MEDLINE: 9196240]
45. Buyan N, Bircan ZE, Hasanoglu E, Ozturk E, Bayhan H, Rota S. The importance of 99mTc DMSA scanning in the localization of childhood urinary tract infections. International Urology & Nephrology 1993;25(1):11-7. [MEDLINE: 8390412]
46. Capdevila Cogul E, Martin Ibanez I, Mainou Cid C, Toral Rodriguez E, Cols Roig Mf, Agut Quijano T, et al. First urinary tract infection in healthy infants: epidemiology, diagnosis and treatment [Primera infeccion urinaria en el lactante sano: epidemiologia y pautas de diagnostico y tratamiento]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 2001;55(4):310-4. [MEDLINE: 11578537]
47. Castello Girona F, Vilaplana Canto E, Yeste Fernandez D, Roca Bielsa I, Enriquez Civico G. 99mTc dimercaptosuccinic scan in the study of the first urinary tract infection in infants [Gamamarafia con 99mTecnecio-acido dimercaptosuccinico en el estudio de la primera infeccion urinaria del lactante]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 1995;42(2):118-22. [EMBASE: 1995091284]
48. Chiou YY, Chen MJ, Chiu NT, Lin CY, Tseng CC. Bacterial virulence factors are associated with occurrence of acute pyelonephritis but not renal scarring. Journal of Urology 2010;184(5):2098-102. [MEDLINE: 20850815]
49. Christian MT, McColl JH, MacKenzie JR, Beattie TJ. Risk assessment of renal cortical scarring with urinary tract infection by clinical features and ultrasonography. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2000;82(5):376-80. [MEDLINE: 10799427]
50. Connell H, de Man P, Jodal U, Lincoln K, Svanborg C. Lack of association between hemolysin production and acute inflammation in human urinary tract infection. Microbial Pathogenesis 1993;14(6):463-72. [MEDLINE: 7692210]
51. Craig JC, Irwig LM, Knight JF, Sureshkumar P, Roy L. Symptomatic urinary tract infection in preschool Australian children. Journal of Paediatrics & Child Health 1998;34(2):154-9. [MEDLINE: 9588640]
52. de Man P, Jodal U, Lincoln K, Eden CS. Bacterial attachment and inflammation in the urinary tract. Journal of Infectious Diseases 1988;158(1):29-35. [MEDLINE: 3292665]
53. Doganis D, Siafas K, Mavrikou M, Issaris G, Martirosova A, Perperidis G, et al. Does early treatment of urinary tract infection prevent renal damage?. Pediatrics 2007;120(4):e922-8. [MEDLINE: 17875650]
54. Dura Trave T, Gonzalez Montero R, Juste Ruiz M, Gonzalez de Dios J, Carratala Marco F, Moya Benavent M, et al. Usefulness of renal scintigraphy in the assessment of the first febrile urinary infection in children [Utilidad de la gammagrafia renal en la valoracion de la primera infeccion urinaria febril en la edad pediatrica]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 1997;47(4):378-82. [MEDLINE: 9499305]
55. Elo J, Tallgren LG, Vaisanen V, Korhonen TK, Svenson SB, Makela PH. Association of P and other fimbriae with clinical pyelonephritis in children. Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology 1985;19(4):281-4. [MEDLINE: 2868520]
56. Fernandez Lopez A, Luaces Cubells C, Valls Tolosa C, Ortega Rodriguez J, Garcia Garcia J J, Mira Vallet A, et al. Procalcitonin in the early diagnosis of invasive bacterial infection in febrile infants [Procalcitonina para el diagnostico precoz de infeccion bacteriana invasiva en el lactante febril]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 2001;55(4):321-8. [MEDLINE: 11578539]
57. Fernandez Lopez A, Luaces Cubells C, Garcia Garcia JJ, Fernandez Pou J, Spanish Society of Pediatric Emergencies. Procalcitonin in pediatric emergency departments for the early diagnosis of invasive bacterial infections in febrile infants: results of a multicenter study and utility of a rapid qualitative test for this marker. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2003;22(10):895-903. [MEDLINE: 14551491]
58. Fernandez-Menendez JM, Malaga S, Matesanz JL, Solis G, Alonso S, Perez-Mendez C. Risk factors in the development of early technetium-99m dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scintigraphy lesions during first urinary tract infection in children. Acta Paediatrica 2003;92(1):21-6. [MEDLINE: 12650294]
59. Figueiredo S, Rocha P, Coelho E, Alexandrino AM, Rocha H. Retrospective study of urinary tract infection in infants [Estudo retrospectivo de infeccao urinaria alta em lactentes]. Nascer e Crescer 1999;8(2):89-92. [EMBASE: 1999270461]
60. Friedman-Gruszczynska J. Assessment of clinical relevance of CRP levels in infectious diseases in children [Ocena przydatnosci klinicznej oznaczania stezenia bialka CRP w chorobach infekcyjnych u dziec]. Pediatria Polska 2008;83(1):49-53. [EMBASE: 2008097172]
61. Galetto-Lacour A, Zamora S, Gervaix A. Blood markers of severe bacterial infections [abstract]. 42nd Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy; Sep 27-30 2002; San Diego, USA. 2002.
62. Galetto-Lacour A, Zamora SA, Gervaix A. Bedside procalcitonin and C-reactive protein tests in children with fever without localizing signs of infection seen in a referral center. Pediatrics 2003;112(5):1054-60. [MEDLINE: 14595045]
63. Garcia de Guadiana L, Gonzalez J, Gonzalez M, Martin E, Albaladejo M, Cortes P. Usefulness of C-reactive protein in admission to localize site of urinary infection in children. Clinical Chemistry & Laboratory Medicine 2011;49(Suppl 1):S637. [EMBASE: 70517512]
64. Gendrel D. Urinary tract infection and biological markers: C-reactive protein, interleukins and procalcitonin [Infection urinaire biologiques: proteine C reactive, interleukine et procalcitonine]. Archives de Pediatrie 1998;5 Suppl 3:269S-73S. [MEDLINE: 9759316]
65. Gervaix A, Galetto-Lacour A, Gueron T, Vadas L, Zamora S, Suter S, et al. Usefulness of procalcitonin and C-reactive protein rapid tests for the management of children with urinary tract infection. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2001;20(5):507-11. [MEDLINE: 11368108]
66. Girardin E. Pyelonephritis in children: new tools for evaluation [Pyelonephrites de l'enfant: nouveaux moyens d'evaluation]. Medecine Therapeutique Pediatrie 2000;3(5):376-80. [EMBASE: 2000414072]
67. Grouteau E, Fauvel J, Blum G, Ouhayoun E, Salles J, Decramer S, et al. Phospholipase A2 (Pla2) and C reactive protein (CRP) in acute pyelonephritis in children. Correlation with DMSA scan [abstract no: P92]. Pediatric Nephrology 1999;13.
68. Guermazi F, Lenoir P, Verboven M, Smets A, Braeckman J, Jonckheer M, et al. Technetium 99m labeled dimercaptosuccinic acid (99m Tc-DMSA) scintigraphy in the diagnosis and follow-up of urinary infections in children [Apport de la scintigraphie a l'acide dimercaptosuccinque marque au technetium 99m (99mTC-DSA) dans le diagnostic et le suivi des infections urinaires de l'enfant]. Archives Francaises de Pediatrie 1993;50(5):391-8. [MEDLINE: 8239890]
69. Gurgoze M, Akarsu S, Yilmaz E, Godekmerdan A, Akca Z, Ciftci I, et al. Proinflammatory cytokines and procalcitonin in children with acute pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 2005;20(10):1445-8. [MEDLINE: 16079986]
70. Guven A, Kazdal H, Koyun M, Aydn F, Gungor F, Akman S, et al. Accurate diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis: How helpful is procalcitonin?. Nuclear Medicine Communications 2006;27(9):715-21. [MEDLINE: 16894326]
71. Hahn H, Moon DH, Yang YJ, Park YS. Renal scarring after acute pyelonephritis in children under the age of 5 years is primarily related to the extent and severity of acute inflammatory changes [abstract]. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2003;44(5 Suppl):358. [BIOSIS Previews: PREV200300383499]
72. Hellerstein S, Duggan E, Welchert E, Mansour F. Localization of the site or urinary tract infections using serum C reactive protein [abstract]. Pediatric Research 1981;15(4 Pt 2):694. [DOI: 10.1203/00006450-198104001-01528; BIOSIS Previews: PREV198121026875]
73. Hellerstein S, Duggan E, Welchert E, Mansour F. Serum C-reactive protein and the site of urinary tract infections. Journal of Pediatrics 1982;100(1):21-5. [MEDLINE: 7057312]
74. Hewitt IK, Zucchetta P, Rigon L, Maschio F, Molinari PP, Tomasi L, et al. Early treatment of acute pyelonephritis in children fails to reduce renal scarring: data from the Italian Renal Infection Study Trials. Pediatrics 2008;122(3):486-90. [MEDLINE: 18762516]
75. Hitzel A, Liard A, Vera P, Manrique A, Menard JF, Dacher JN. Color and power Doppler sonography versus DMSA scintigraphy in acute pyelonephritis and in prediction of renal scarring. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2002;43(1):27-32. [MEDLINE: 11801699]
76. Huang DT, Huang FY, Tsai TC, Tsai JD, Chiu NC, Lin CC. Clinical differentiation of acute pyelonephritis from lower urinary tract infection in children. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology & Infection 2007;40(6):513-7. [MEDLINE: 18087632]
77. Ilyas M, Mastin ST, Richard GA. Age-related radiological imaging in children with acute pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 2002;17(1):30-4. [MEDLINE: 11793131]
78. Jakobsson B, Söderlundh S, Berg U. Diagnostic significance of 99mTc-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy in urinary tract infection. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1992;67(11):1338-42. [MEDLINE: 1335226]
79. Jakobsson B, Nolstedt L, Svensson L, Soderlundh S, Berg U. 99mTechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scan in the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children: relation to clinical and radiological findings. Pediatric Nephrology 1992;6(4):328-34. [MEDLINE: 1343562]
80. Jakobsson B, Berg U, Svensson L. Renal scarring after acute pyelonephritis. Archives of Disease in Childhood 1994;70(2):111-5. [MEDLINE: 8129430]
81. Jakobsson B, Svensson L. Transient pyelonephritic changes on 99mTechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scan for at least five months after infection. Acta Paediatrica 1997;86(8):806-7. [MEDLINE: 9307157]
82. Jaksic E, Bogdanovic R, Artiko V, Saranovic DS, Petrasinovic Z, Petrovic M, et al. Diagnostic role of initial renal cortical scintigraphy in children with the first episode of acute pyelonephritis. Annals of Nuclear Medicine 2011;25(1):37-43. [MEDLINE: 21080122]
83. Jantausch BA, Rifai N, Getson P, Akram S, Majd M, Wiedermann BL. Urinary N-acetyl-beta-glucosaminidase and beta-2-microglobulin in the diagnosis of urinary tract infection in febrile infants. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 1994;13(4):294-9. [MEDLINE: 8036046]
84. Jodal U, Lindberg U, Lincoln K. Level diagnosis of symptomatic urinary tract infections in childhood. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 1975;64(2):201-8. [MEDLINE: 1093351]
85. Johnson CE, Shurin PA, Marchant CD, Strieter CM, Murdell-Panek D, Debaz BP, et al. Identification of children requiring radiologic evaluation for urinary infection. Pediatric Infectious Disease 1985;46(6):656-63. [MEDLINE: 3909120]
86. Kanellopoulos TA, Vassilakos PJ, Kantzis M, Ellina A, Kolonitsiou F, Papanastasiou DA. Low bacterial count urinary tract infections in infants and young children. European Journal of Pediatrics 2005;164(6):355-61. [MEDLINE: 15739109]
87. Karakatsani Z, Kipuru C, Stefanidis C. Is C-reactive protein reliable for the prediction of renal lesions in infants with urinary tract infection (UTI)? [abstract]. Pediatric Nephrology 1997;11(5):C56. [BIOSIS Previews: PREV199799837360]
88. Karavanaki K, Angelos Haliotis F, Sourani M, Kariyiannis C, Hantzi E, Zachariadou L, et al. DMSA scintigraphy in febrile urinary tract infections could be omitted in children with low procalcitonin levels. Infectious Diseases in Clinical Practice 2007;15(6):377-81. [EMBASE: 2007563970]
89. Kassir K, Vargas-Shiraishi O, Zaldivar F, Berman M, Singh J, Arrieta A. Cytokine profiles of pediatric patients treated with antibiotics for pyelonephritis: potential therapeutic impact. Clinical & Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology 2001;8(6):1060-3. [MEDLINE: 11687440]
90. Katz SP, Barfeld PA, Kaskel FJ. Clinical value of DMSA scan in differentiating acute pyelonephritis (APN) from other urinary tract infections (UTI) in adolescent females [abstract]. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 1993;4.
91. Katz SP, Gromisch DS, Balbi HJ, Vilela MG, Constantatos C, Affan AA. A seven year retrospective review of patients diagnosed with urinary tract infection (UTI) from birth to twenty-four months of age [abstract]. Pediatric Research 2002;51.
92. Kiker JD, Woodside JR, Reed WP, Borden TA, Woodside MD. Urinary lactic dehydrogenase and serum C-reactive protein as means of localizing the site of urinary tract infection in patients with ileal conduits. Journal of Urology 1982;128(4):749-51. [MEDLINE: 7143596]
93. Kim S, Kim I, Kim E, Yoo I, Chung Y, Sohn H, et al. Planar and pinhole renal cortical scintigraphic findings correlated to consolidated clinical parameters in acute urinary tract infection [abstract]. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2001;42.
94. Krzemien G, Roszkowska-Blaim M, Kostro I, Szmigielska A, Karpinska M, Sieniawska M, et al. Urinary levels of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 in children with urinary tract infections to age 2. Medical Science Monitor 2004;10(11):CR593-7. [MEDLINE: 15507849]
95. Lai SW, Ng KC. Retrospective analysis of inflammatory parameters in acute pyelonephritis. Scandinavian Journal of Urology & Nephrology 2003;37(3):350-2. [MEDLINE: 12775285]
96. Lee JH, Son CH, Lee MS, Park YS. Vesicoureteral reflux increases the risk of renal scars: a study of unilateral reflux. Pediatric Nephrology 2006;21(9):1281-4. [MEDLINE: 16791609]
97. Lee HY, Soh BH, Hong CH, Kim MJ, Han SW. The efficacy of ultrasound and dimercaptosuccinic acid scan in predicting vesicoureteral reflux in children below the age of 2 years with their first febrile urinary tract infection. Pediatric Nephrology 2009;24(10):2009-13. [MEDLINE: 19593590]
98. Leroy S, Fernandez-Lopez A, Nikfar R, Romanello C, Bouissou F, Gervaix A, et al. Procalcitonin predicts well acute pyelonephritis and renal scars in children with urinary tract infection [abstract]. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2012;27(Suppl 2):ii547.
99. Lin DS, Huang SH, Lin CC, Tung YC, Huang TT, Chiu NC, et al. Urinary tract infection in febrile infants younger than eight weeks of age. Pediatrics 2000;105(2):E20. [MEDLINE: 10654980]
100. Linne T, Fituri O, Escobar-Billing R, Karlsson A, Wikstad I, Aperia A, et al. Functional parameters and 99mtechnetium-dimercaptosuccinic acid scan in acute pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 1994;8(6):694-9. [MEDLINE: 7696107]
101. Lomberg H, Jodal U, Leffler H, De Man P, Svanborg C. Blood group non-secretors have an increased inflammatory response to urinary tract infection. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases 1992;24(1):77-83. [MEDLINE: 1589729]
102. Majd M, Rushton HG, Jantausch B, Wiedermann BL. Relationship among vesicoureteral reflux, P-fimbriated Escherichia coli, and acute pyelonephritis in children with febrile urinary tract infection. Journal of Pediatrics 1991;119(4):578-85. [MEDLINE: 1681043]
103. Majd M, Rushton HG. Renal cortical scintigraphy in the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis. Seminars in Nuclear Medicine 1992;22(2):98-111. [MEDLINE: 1317065]
104. Malaga S, Matesanz JL, Dieguez MA, Crespo M. Value of the C reactive protein, urinary lactic dehydrogenase and renal capacity of concentration in the topographic diagnosis of the urinary infection in infancy (author's transl) [Valor de la proteina C reactiva, lactilo-dehidrogenasa urinaria y capacidad renal de concentracion en el diagnostico topografico de la infeccion urinaria en la infancia]. Anales Espanoles de Pediatria 1978;11(6-7):485-96. [MEDLINE: 697217]
105. Mazigh Mrad S, Fetni I, Rabeh O, Oubich F, Boukthir S, Barsaoui S. Contribution of clinical, biological and radiological parameters in the diagnosis of urinary infection localization [Apport des parametres cliniques biologiques et radiogiques dans le diagnostic de localisation de l'infection urinaire]. Tunisie Medicale 2002;80(10):28-32. [MEDLINE: 12632757]
106. Mohkam M, Karimi A, Karimi H, Sharifian M, Armin S, Dalirani R, et al. Urinary interleukin-8 in acute pyelonephritis of children: a before-after study. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases 2008;2(4):193-6. [MEDLINE: 19377236]
107. Montini G, Rigon L, Zucchetta P, Fregonese F, Toffolo A, Gobber D, et al. Prophylaxis after first febrile urinary tract infection in children? A multicenter, randomized, controlled, noninferiority trial. Pediatrics 2008;122(5):1064-71. [MEDLINE: 18977988]
108. Montini G, Zucchetta P, Tomasi L, Talenti E, Rigamonti W, Picco G, et al. Value of imaging studies after a first febrile urinary tract infection in young children: data from Italian renal infection study 1. Pediatrics 2009;123(2):e239-46. [MEDLINE: 19139086]
109. Moon DG, Oh MM, Nam SG, Jin MH, Park HS, Cheon J, et al. Predictive factors for acute scintingraphic lesion and ultimate scar formation in patients with acute febrile UTI [abstract]. Journal of Urology 2009;181(4 Suppl 1):380. [EMBASE: 70113158]
110. Mussap M, Cataldi L, Plebani M, Fanos V. Laboratory investigation for the early diagnosis and monitoring of neonatal urinary tract infections: The present situation and future perspectives. Journal of Chemotherapy 2006;18 Spec no 3:9-13. [MEDLINE: 16789365]
111. Naseri M. Alterations of peripheral leukocyte count, erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and C-reactive protein in febrile urinary tract infection. Iranian journal of Kidney Diseases 2008;2(3):137-42. [MEDLINE: 19377227]
112. Neuhaus TJ, Berger C, Buechner K, Parvex P, Bischoff G, Goetschel P, et al. Randomised trial of oral versus sequential intravenous/oral cephalosporins in children with pyelonephritis. European Journal of Pediatrics 2008;167(9):1037-47. [MEDLINE: 18074149]
113. Oh Mm, Cheon J, Kang SH, Park HS, Lee JG, Moon DG. Predictive factors for acute renal cortical scintigraphic lesion and ultimate scar formation in children with first febrile urinary tract infection. Journal of Urology 2010;183(3):1146-50. [MEDLINE: 20096887]
114. Oh M, Moon DG, Bae JH, Kang SH, Kim JJ, Lee JG, et al. The role of therapeutic delay time in acute scintigraphic lesion and ultimate scar formation in children with first febrile UTI; is there difference according to the presence of vesico-ureteral reflux? [abstract]. Journal of Urology 2011;185(4 Suppl 1):e230-1. [EMBASE: 70377836]
115. Orlowska H, Roszkowska-Blaim M. Procalcitonin - A new inflammatory marker in children with urinary tract infection - A preliminary study [Prokalcytonina - Nowy marker stanu zapalnego u dzieci z zakazeniem ukladu moczowego - Doniesienie wstepne]. Pediatria Polska 2004;79(2):111-4. [EMBASE: 2004143727]
116. Otto G, Burdick M, Strieter R, Godaly G. Chemokine response to febrile urinary tract infection. Kidney International 2005;68(1):62-70. [MEDLINE: 15954896]
117. Otukesh H, Fereshtehnejad SM, Hoseini R, Hekmat S, Chalian H, Chalian M, et al. Urine macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) in children with urinary tract infection: a possible predictor of acute pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 2009;24(1):105-11. [MEDLINE: 18800229]
118. Paripovic A, Stajic N, Putnik J, Slavkovic B, Jaksic E, Bogdanovic R. Interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-8 (IL-8) in urine of children with acute pyelonephritis [abstract]. Pediatric Nephrology 2011;26(9):1691-2. [EMBASE: 70530833]
119. Pecile P, Miorin E, Romanello C, Falleti E, Valent F, Giacomuzzi F, et al. Procalcitonin: a marker of severity of acute pyelonephritis among children. Pediatrics 2004;144(2):e249-54. [MEDLINE: 15286264]
120. Pecile P, Miorin E, Romanello C, Falleti E, Valent F, Giacomuzzi F, et al. Procalcitonin: a marker of severity of acute pyelonephritis among children: commentary. Archives de Pediatrie 2005;12(7):1155-6. [EMBASE: 2005271359]
121. Pecile P, Romanello C. Procalcitonin and pyelonephritis in children. Current Opinion in Infectious Diseases 2007;20(1):83-7. [MEDLINE: 17197887]
122. Piepsz A, Tamminen-Mobius T, Reiners C, Heikkila J, Kivisaari A, Nilsson NJ, et al. Five-year study of medical or surgical treatment in children with severe vesico-ureteral reflux dimercaptosuccinic acid findings. International Reflux Study Groupin Europe. European Journal of Pediatrics 1998;157(9):753-8. [MEDLINE: 9776536]
123. Prat C, Dominguez J, Rodrigo C, Gimenez M, Azuara M, Jimenez O, et al. Elevated serum procalcitonin values correlate with renal scarring in children with urinary tract infection. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2004;22(5):438-42. [MEDLINE: 12792386]
124. Prat C, Dominguez J, Rodrigo C, Gimenez M, Azuara M, Blanco S, et al. Use of quantitative and semiquantitative procalcitonin measurements to identify children with sepsis and meningitis. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases 2004;23(2):136-8. [MEDLINE: 14689316]
125. Preda I, Jodal U, Sixt R, Stokland E, Hansson S. Imaging strategy for infants with urinary tract infection: a new algorithm. Journal of Urology 2011;185(3):1046-52. [MEDLINE: 21247606]
126. Printza N, Papachristou F, Piretzi K, Goga C, Arsos G. Neither clinical nor biological data can predict renal involvement in infants with febrile urinary tract infection [abstract]. Pediatrics 2008;121(Suppl 2):S143.
127. Puczko-Michalczuk A, Zoch-Zwierz W, Wasilewska A, Porowska T, Korzeniecka-Kozerska A. Evaluation of inflammatory and renal injury markers in youngest children with pyelonephritis [Ocena wskaznikow zapalenia i uszkodzenia nerek u najmlodszych dzieci chorych na odmiedniczkowe zapalenie nerek]. Polski Merkuriusz Lekarski 2008;25(150):451-4. [MEDLINE: 19205372]
128. Putnik J, Stajic N, Paripovic A, Jaksic E, Bogdanovic R. Procalcitonin as a predictor of acute pyelonephritis and risk for renal scarring in children with a first febrile urinary tract infection [abstract]. Pediatric Nephrology 2011;26(9):1701-2. [EMBASE: 70530865]
129. Repetto HA, Alarcon PA, Pellegrini M. Procalcitonin as a marker of acute pyelonephritis. Pediatric Nephrology 2004;18(7):726. [MEDLINE: 12721819]
130. Robles Garcia B, Rodriguez Fernandez LM, Suarez Rodriguez MA, Marugan De Miguelsanz JM, Fernandez Castano M, Fuentes Acebes MC. Comparison of the utility of fever and some laboratory parameters to diagnose acute pyelonephritis in children [Comparacion de la utilidad de la fiebre y de algunos parametros analiticos para el diagnostico de pielonefritis aguda en ninos]. Revista Espanola de Pediatria 2005;61(5):358-63. [EMBASE: 2006003054]
131. Sadeghi BS, Hashemi M. Diagnostic evaluation of procalcitonin in children with acute pyelonephritis [abstract]. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases 2011;5(Suppl 1):15. [EMBASE: 70539635]
132. Sevketoglu E, Yilmaz A, Gedikbasi A, Karyagar S, Kiyak A, Mulazimoglu M, et al. Urinary macrophage migration inhibitory factor in children with urinary tract infection. Pediatric Nephrology 2010;25(2):299-304. [MEDLINE: 19841948]
133. Sharifian MD, Akbarian M. Accurate diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children: how helpful is procalcitonin? [abstract]. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 2005;20(Suppl 5):250.
134. Sheu JN, Chen SM, Meng MH, Lue KH. The role of serum and urine interleukin-8 on acute pyelonephritis and subsequent renal scarring in children. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2009;28(10):885-90. [MEDLINE: 19687772]
135. Simsek E, Kologlu N, Yugunt I, Kocabay K. Comparison of imaging studies and diagnostic tests for the diagnosis and follow-up of recurrent urinary tract infection in children. International Pediatrics 2004;19(2):109-13. [EMBASE: 2004251416]
136. Smolkin V, Koren A, Raz R, Colodner R, Sakran W, Halevy R. Procalcitonin as a marker of acute pyelonephritis in infants and children. Pediatric Nephrology 2002;17(6):409-12. [MEDLINE: 12107804]
137. Soylu A, Kasap B, Demir K, Turkmen M, Kavukcu S. Predictive value of clinical and laboratory variables for vesicoureteral reflux in children. Pediatric Nephrology 2007;22(6):844-8. [MEDLINE: 17273861]
138. Stokland E, Hellstrom M, Jacobsson B, Jodal U, Lundgren P, Sixt R. Early 99mTc dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) scintigraphy in symptomatic first-time urinary tract infection. Acta Paediatrica 1996;85(4):430-6. [MEDLINE: 8740300]
139. Stokland E, Hellstrom M, Jacobsson B, Jodal U, Sixt R. Evaluation of DMSA scintigraphy and urography in assessing both acute and permanent renal damage in children. Acta Radiologica 1998;39(4):447-52. [MEDLINE: 9685836]
140. Subat-Dezulovic M, Katalinic-Franulovic J, Cekada S. Epidemiological and clinical characteristics of the first documented urinary infection in children. Paediatria Croatica 1998;42(3-4):165-72. [EMBASE: 1999052133]
141. Swerkersson S, Jodal U, Sixt R, Stokland E, Hansson S. Relationship among vesicoureteral reflux, urinary tract infection and renal damage in children. Journal of Urology 2007;178(2):647-1. [MEDLINE: 17574623]
142. Tealab AA, Kholy O, Saad M, Gaballah A. The role of urinary IL 8 level in diagnosis and differentiation between different types of urinary tract infection in children [abstract]. European Urology, Supplements 2011;10(2):111. [EMBASE: 70375789]
143. Thayyil S, Shenoy M, Hamaluba M, Gupta A, Frater J, Verber IG. Is procalcitonin useful in early diagnosis of serious bacterial infections in children?. Acta Paediatrica 2005;94(2):155-8. [MEDLINE: 15981747]
144. Valavi E, Ahmadzadeh A, Ziaee KT, Nicfar R, Aminzadeh M, Najafi R. Clinical correlation between findings of renal scintigraphy and clinical / laboratory findings in children with febrile UTI [abstract]. Iranian Journal of Kidney Diseases 2011;5(Suppl 1):10. [EMBASE: 70539623]
145. Verboven M, Ingels M, Delree M, Piepsz A. 99mTc-DMSA scintigraphy in acute urinary tract infection in children. Pediatric Radiology 1990;20(7):540-2. [MEDLINE: 2170901]
146. Wang YT, Chiu NT, Chen MJ, Huang JJ, Chou HH, Chiou YY. Correlation of renal ultrasonographic findings with inflammatory volume from dimercaptosuccinic acid renal scans in children with acute pyelonephritis. Journal of Urology 2005;173(1):190-4. [MEDLINE: 15592072]
147. Yen CW, Chen DH. Urinary tract infection in children. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology & Infection 1999;32(3):199-205. [MEDLINE: 10637719]
148. Bossuyt PM, Irwig L, Craig J, Glasziou P. Comparative accuracy: assessing new tests against existing diagnostic pathways. BMJ 2006;332(7549):1089-92. [MEDLINE: 16675820]
149. Coulthard MG, Lambert HJ, Keir MJ. Do systemic symptoms predict the risk of kidney scarring after urinary tract infection?. Archives of Disease in Childhood 2009;94(4):278-81. [MEDLINE: 19015216]
150. Craig JC, Wheeler DM, Irwig L, Howman-Giles RB. How accurate is dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphy for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis? A meta-analysis of experimental studies. Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2000;41(6):986-93. [MEDLINE: 10855622]
151. Freedman AL, Urologic Diseases in America Project. Urologic diseases in North America Project: trends in resource utilization for urinary tract infections in children. Journal of Urology 2005;173(3):949-54. [MEDLINE: 15711347]
152. Hanson LA, Jodal U, Sabel KG, Wadsworth C. The diagnostic value of C-reactive protein. Pediatric Infectious Disease 1983;2(2):87-9. [MEDLINE: 6856495]
153. Hayen A, Macaskill P, Irwig L, Bossuyt P. Appropriate statistical methods are required to assess diagnostic tests for replacement, add-on, and triage. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 2010;63(8):883-91. [MEDLINE: 20079607]
154. Hoberman A, Wald ER, Reynolds EA, Penchansky L, Charron M. Pyuria and bacteriuria in urine specimens obtained by catheter from young children with fever. Journal of Pediatrics 1994;124(4):513-9. [MEDLINE: 8151463]
155. Huang YY, Chen MJ, Chiu NT, Chou HH, Lin KY, Chiou YY. Adjunctive oral methylprednisolone in pediatric acute pyelonephritis alleviates renal scarring. Pediatrics 2011;128(3):e496-504. [MEDLINE: 21844061]
156. Mantadakis E, Plessa E, Vouloumanou EK, Karageorgopoulos DE, Chatzimichael A, Falagas ME. Serum procalcitonin for prediction of renal parenchymal involvement in children with urinary tract infections: a meta-analysis of prospective clinical studies. Journal of Pediatrics 2009;155(6):875-81. [MEDLINE: 19850301]
157. Pylkkanen J. Vilska J, Koskimies O. The value of level diagnosis of childhood urinary tract infection in predicting renal injury. Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 1981;70(6):879-83. [MEDLINE: 7324941]
158. SAS Software [computer program]. SAS Institute Inc., North Carolina USA, 2011.
159. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Lopez J, Chianese J, Sangvai S, D'Amico F, et al. Does this child have a urinary tract infection?. JAMA 2007;298(24):2895-904. [MEDLINE: 18159059]
160. Shaikh N, Morone NE, Bost JE, Farrell MH. Prevalence of urinary tract infection in childhood: a meta-analysis. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal 2008;27(4):302-8. [MEDLINE: 18316994]
161. Shaikh N, Ewing AL, Bhatnagar S, Hoberman A. Risk of renal scarring in children with a first urinary tract infection: a systematic review. Pediatrics 2010;126(6):1084-91. [MEDLINE: 21059720]
162. Stokland E, Hellstrom M, Jacobsson B, Jodal U, Sixt R. Renal damage one year after first urinary tract infection: role of dimercaptosuccinic acid scintigraphy. Journal of Pediatrics 1996;129(6):815-20. [MEDLINE: 8969722]
163. Whiting P, Rutjes AW, Reitsma JB, Bossuyt PM, Kleijnen J. The development of QUADAS: a tool for the quality assessment of studies of diagnostic accuracy included in systematic reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology 2003;3:25. [MEDLINE: 14606960]
164. Shaikh N, Evron J, Leeflang MM. Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, and erythrocyte sedimentation rate for the diagnosis of acute pyelonephritis in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2011, Issue 6. [DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD009185]