Sustained ventricular tachycardia in structural heart disease

Cardiology Journal

Volumn 22, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 12-24

  Hadid, Claudio ^a  

^a HOSPITAL GENERAL DE AGUDOS DR COSME ARGERICH   (Argentina)

Author keywords

Catheter ablation; Electrocardiogram; Implantable cardioverter defibrillator; Ventricular tachycardia

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; DOFETILIDE;

ABLATION THERAPY; CATHETER ABLATION; CHAGAS DISEASE; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL (TOPIC); CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE; CORONARY ARTERY DISEASE; DRUG EFFICACY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY MONITORING; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGICAL PROCEDURES; HEART DISEASE; HEART INFARCTION; HEART VENTRICLE ARRHYTHMIA; HEART VENTRICLE TACHYCARDIA; HOLTER MONITORING; HUMAN; IMPLANTABLE CARDIOVERTER DEFIBRILLATOR; P WAVE; QRS COMPLEX; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REENTRY TACHYCARDIA; REVIEW; SARCOIDOSIS; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SUDDEN CARDIAC DEATH; ACTION POTENTIAL; CARDIOVERSION; COMPLICATION; DEATH, SUDDEN, CARDIAC; DEVICES; DRUG EFFECTS; HEART DISEASES; HEART FUNCTION TEST; HEART RATE; MORTALITY; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PREDICTIVE VALUE; RISK FACTOR; TACHYCARDIA, VENTRICULAR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ACTION POTENTIALS; ANTI-ARRHYTHMIA AGENTS; CATHETER ABLATION; DEATH, SUDDEN, CARDIAC; DEFIBRILLATORS, IMPLANTABLE; ELECTRIC COUNTERSHOCK; ELECTROCARDIOGRAPHY; ELECTROPHYSIOLOGIC TECHNIQUES, CARDIAC; HEART DISEASES; HEART RATE; HUMANS; PREDICTIVE VALUE OF TESTS; RISK FACTORS; TACHYCARDIA, VENTRICULAR; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84923324396     PISSN: 18975593     EISSN: 1898018X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5603/CJ.a2014.0069     Document Type: Review

References (90)

1. Myerburg RJ, Kessler KM, Castellanos A. Sudden cardiac death: Epide-miology, transient risk, and intervention assessment. Ann Intern Med, 1993; 119: 1187–1197.
2. Myerburg RJ, Interian A Jr, Mitrani RM, Kessler KM, Castellanos A. Frequency of sudden cardiac death and profiles of risk. Am J Cardiol, 1997; 80: 10F–19F.
3. Myerburg RJ, Castellanos A. Cardiac arrest and sudden cardiac death. In: Braunwald E ed. Heart disease: A text book of cardiovascular medicine. 4 Ed. WB Saunders, Philadelphia 1992: 756–789.
4. Hallstrom AP, Eisenberg MS, Bergner L. The persistence of ventricular fibrillation and its implication for evaluating EMS. Emerg Health Serv Q, 1982; 1: 41–49.
5. Dias E, Laranja FS, Miranda A, Nobrega G. Chagas’ disease; a clinical, epidemiologic, and pathologic study. Circulation, 1956; 14: 1035–1060.
6. Di Toro D, Muratore C, Aguinaga L et al. Predictors of all-cause 1-year mortality in implantable cardioverter defibrillator patients with chronic Chagas’ cardiomyopathy. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol, 2011; 34: 1063–1069.
7. Aliot EM, Stevenson WG, Almendral-Garrote JM et al. EHRA/HRS Expert Consensus on Catheter Ablation of Ventricular Arrhythmias: Developed in a partnership with the European Heart Rhythm Association (EHRA), a Registered Branch of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC), and the Heart Rhythm Society (HRS); in collaboration with the American College of Cardiology (ACC) and the American Heart Association (AHA). Heart Rhythm, 2009; 6: 886–933.
8. Josephson ME, Almendral JM, Buxton AE, Marchlinski FE. Mechanisms of ventricular tachycardia. Circulation, 1987; 75 (4 Part 2): III41–III47.
9. Josephson M. Recurrent ventricular tachycardia. In: Clinical cardiac electrophysiology. Technics and interpretations. 4 Ed. Lippincott Wilkins & Williams, Philadelphia 2008: 446–642.
10. Carmeliet E. Cardiac ionic currents and acute ischemia: from channels to arrhythmias. Physiol Rev, 1999; 79: 917–1017.
11. Benvenuti LA, Gutierrez PS. Epicardial lesions in Chagas’ heart disease reflect an inflammatory process. Arq Bras Cardiol, 2007; 88: 496–498.
12. Sosa E, Scanavacca M, D’Avila A et al. Endocardial and epicardial ablation guided by nonsurgical transthoracic epicardial mapping to treat recurrent ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 1998; 9: 229–39.
13. Rassi A Jr, Rassi A, Little WC. Chagas’ heart disease. Clin Cardiol, 2000; 23: 883–889.
14. Zipes DP, Camm AJ, Borggrefe M et al. ACC/AHA/ESC 2006 Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines (writing committee to develop Guidelines for Management of Patients With Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death): Developed in collaboration with the European Heart Rhythm Association and the Heart Rhythm Society. Circulation, 2006; 114: e385–e484.
15. Birnie DH, Sauer WH, Bogun F et al. HRS expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of arrhythmias associated with cardiac sarcoidosis. Heart Rhythm, 2014; 11: 1305–1323.
16. Caceres J, Jazayeri M, McKinnie J et al. Sustained bundle branch reentry as a mechanism of clinical tachycardia. Circulation, 1989; 79: 256–270.
17. Pinski SL, Yao Q, Epstein AE et al. Determinants of outcome in patients with sustained ventricular tachyarrhythmias: the antiarrhythmics versus implantable defibrillators (AVID) study registry. Am Heart J, 2000; 139: 804–813.
18. Raitt MH, Renfroe EG, Epstein AE et al. “Stable” ventricular tachycardia is not a benign rhythm: insights from the antiarrhythmics versus implantable defibrillators (AVID) registry. Circulation, 2001; 103: 244–252.
19. Exner DV, Pinski SL, Wyse DG et al. Electrical storm presages nonsudden death: The antiarrhythmics versus implantable defibrillators (AVID) trial. Circulation, 2001; 103: 2066–2071.
20. Carbucicchio C, Santamaria M, Trevisi N et al. Catheter ablation for the treatment of electrical storm in patients with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators: short-and long-term outcomes in a prospective single-center study. Circulation, 2008; 117: 462–469.
21. Guerra F, Shkoza M, Scappini L, Flori M, Capucci A. Role of electrical storm as a mortality and morbidity risk factor and its clinical predictors: A meta-analysis. Europace, 2014; 16: 347–353.
22. Poole JE, Johnson GW, Hellkamp AS et al. Prognostic importance of defibrillator shocks in patients with heart failure. N Engl J Med, 2008; 359: 1009–1017.
23. Sweeney MO, Sherfesee L, DeGroot PJ, Wathen MS, Wilkoff BL. Differences in effects of electrical therapy type for ventricular arrhythmias on mortality in implantable cardioverter-defibrillator patients. Heart Rhythm, 2010; 7: 353–360.
24. Daubert JP, Zareba W, Cannom DS et al. Inappropriate implantable cardioverter-defibrillator shocks in MADIT II: frequency, mechanisms, predictors, and survival impact. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2008; 51: 1357––1365.
25. Cevik C, Perez-Verdia A, Nugent K. Implantable cardioverter defibrillators and their role in heart failure progression. Europace, 2009; 11: 710–715.
26. Tokano T, Bach D, Chang J et al. Effect of ventricular shock strength on cardiac hemodynamics. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 1998; 9: 791–797.
27. Joglar JA, Kessler DJ, Welch PJ et al. Effects of repeated electrical defibrillations on cardiac troponin I levels. Am J Cardiol, 1999; 83: A6, 270–272.
28. Hasdemir C, Shah N, Rao AP et al. Analysis of troponin I levels after spontaneous implantable cardioverter defibrillator shocks. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 2002; 13: 144–150.
29. Singer I, Hutchins GM, Mirowski M et al. Pathologic findings related to the lead system and repeated defibrillations in patients with the automatic implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1987; 10: 382–388.
30. Hurst TM, Hinrichs M, Breidenbach C, Katz N, Waldecker B. Detection of myocardial injury during transvenous implantation of automatic cardioverter-defibrillators. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1999; 34: 402–408.
31. Miller JM, Hsia HH, Rothman SA, Buxton AE. Ventricular tachycardia versus supraventricular tachycardia with aberration: electrocardiographic distinctions. In: Zipes D, Jalife J eds. Cardiac electrophysiology: From cell to bedside. 3 Ed. Sanders WB, Philadelphia 2000: 696–705.
32. Wellens HJ, Bär FW, Lie KI. The value of the electrocardiogram in the differential diagnosis of a tachycardia with a widened QRS complex. Am J Med, 1978; 64: 27–33.
33. Brugada P, Brugada J, Mont L, Smeets J, Andries EW. A new approach to the differential diagnosis of a regular tachycardia with a wide QRS complex. Circulation, 1991; 83: 1649–1659.
34. Vereckei A, Duray G, Szénási G, Altemose GT, Miller JM. New algorithm using only lead aVR for differential diagnosis of wide QRS complex tachycardia. Heart Rhythm, 2008; 5: 89–98.
35. Benito B, Josephson ME. Ventricular tachycardia in coronary artery disease. Rev Esp Cardiol Engl Ed, 2012; 65: 939–955.
36. Dongas J, Lehmann MH, Mahmud R, Denker S, Soni J, Akhtar M. Value of preexisting bundle branch block in the electrocardiographic differentiation of supraventricular from ventricular origin of wide QRS tachycardia. Am J Cardiol, 1985; 55: 717–721.
37. Oreto G, Smeets JL, Rodriguez LM, Timmermans C, Wellens HJ. Wide complex tachycardia with atrioventricular dissociation and QRS morphology identical to that of sinus rhythm: a manifestation of bundle branch reentry. Heart Br Card Soc, 1996; 76: 541–547.
38. Miller JM, Marchlinski FE, Buxton AE, Josephson ME. Relationship between the 12-lead electrocardiogram during ventricular tachycardia and endocardial site of origin in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation, 1988; 77: 759–766.
39. Hadid C, Almendral J, Ortiz M et al. Incidence, determinants, and prognostic implications of true pleomorphism of ventricular tachycardia in patients with implantable cardioverter-defribillators: A substudy of the DATAS Trial. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2011; 4: 33–42.
40. Hadid C, Gallino S, Di Toro D et al. Multiple morphologies of ventricular tachycardia assessed by implantable cardioverter-defibrillator electrograms in a patient with Chagas disease, successfully treated with catheter ablation: modern problems, old solutions. Europace, 2012; 14: 1660.
41. Pytkowski M, Maciąg A, Sterliński M et al. Novel algorithm for arrhythmogenic focus localization in patients with right ventricular outflow tract arrhythmias. Cardiol J, 2014; 21: 284–292.
42. Mason JW. A comparison of electrophysiologic testing with Holter monitoring to predict antiarrhythmic-drug efficacy for ventricular tachyarrhythmias. Electrophysiologic Study versus Electrocardiographic Monitoring Investigators. N Engl J Med, 1993; 329: 445–451.
43. Moss AJ, Hall WJ, Cannom DS et al. Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med, 1996; 335: 1933–1940.
44. Buxton AE, Lee KL, DiCarlo L et al. Electrophysiologic testing to identify patients with coronary artery disease who are at risk for sudden death. Multicenter Unsustained Tachycardia Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med, 2000; 342: 1937–1945.
45. Ho AT, Pai SM, Timothy P, Pai RG. Effect of concomitant antiarrhythmic therapy on survival in patients with implantable cardioverter defibrillators. PACE, 2005; 28: 647–653.
46. Pacifico A, Hohnloser SH, Williams JH et al. Prevention of implantable-defibrillator shocks by treatment with sotalol. d,l-Sotalol Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillator Study Group. N Engl J Med, 1999; 340: 1855–1862.
47. Connolly SJ, Dorian P, Roberts RS et al. Comparison of beta-blockers, amiodarone plus beta-blockers, or sotalol for prevention of shocks from implantable cardioverter defibrillators: the OPTIC Study: A randomized trial. JAMA J Am Med Assoc, 2006; 295: 165–171.
48. Baquero GA, Banchs JE, Depalma S et al. Dofetilide reduces the frequency of ventricular arrhythmias and implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapies. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 2012; 23: 296–301.
49. Connolly SJ, Gent M, Roberts RS et al. Canadian implantable defibrillator study (CIDS): A randomized trial of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator against amiodarone. Circulation, 2000; 101: 1297–1302.
50. Siebels J, Kuck KH. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator compared with antiarrhythmic drug treatment in cardiac arrest survivors (the Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg). Am Heart J, 1994; 127 (4 Part 2): 1139–1144.
51. Kuck KH, Cappato R, Siebels J, Rüppel R. Randomized comparison of antiarrhythmic drug therapy with implantable defibrillators in patients resuscitated from cardiac arrest: The Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg (CASH). Circulation, 2000; 102: 748–754.
52. The Antiarrhythmics versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) Investigators. A comparison of antiarrhythmic-drug therapy with implantable defibrillators in patients resuscitated from near-fatal ventricular arrhythmias. N Engl J Med, 1997; 337: 1576–1583.
53. Bokhari F, Newman D, Greene M, Korley V, Mangat I, Dorian P. Long-term comparison of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator versus amiodarone: Eleven-year follow-up of a subset of patients in the Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study (CIDS). Circulation, 2004; 110: 112–116.
54. Connolly SJ, Hallstrom AP, Cappato R et al. Meta-analysis of the implantable cardioverter defibrillator secondary prevention trials. AVID, CASH and CIDS studies. Antiarrhythmics vs Implantable Defibrillator study. Cardiac Arrest Study Hamburg. Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study. Eur Heart J, 2000; 21: 2071–2078.
55. Domanski MJ, Sakseena S, Epstein AE et al. Relative effectiveness of the implantable cardioverter-defibrillator and antiarrhythmic drugs in patients with varying degrees of left ventricular dysfunction who have survived malignant ventricular arrhythmias. Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1999; 34: 1090–1095.
56. Sheldon R, Connolly S, Krahn A, Roberts R, Gent M, Gardner M. Identification of patients most likely to benefit from implantable cardioverter-defibrillator therapy: The Canadian Implantable Defibrillator Study. Circulation, 2000; 101: 1660–1604.
57. Epstein AE, Dimarco JP, Ellenbogen KA et al. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 Guidelines for device-based therapy of cardiac rhythm abnormalities. Heart Rhythm, 2008; 5: e1–e62.
58. McMurray JJV, Adamopoulos S, Anker SD et al. ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure 2012: The Task Force for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Acute and Chronic Heart Failure 2012 of the European Society of Cardiology. Developed in collaboration with the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC. Eur Heart J, 2012; 33: 1787–1847.
59. Retyk E, Bochoeyer A, Sampo E et al. Consenso de Prevención Primaria y Secundaria de Muerte Súbita. Sociedad Argentina de Cardiología, Sociedad Uruguaya de Cardiología (con la colaboración de CONAREC). Rev Argent Cardiol, 2012; 80: 1–10.
60. Russo AM, Stainback RF, Bailey SR et al. ACCF/HRS/AHA/ASE//HFSA/SCAI/SCCT/SCMR 2013 appropriate use criteria for implantable cardioverter-defibrillators and cardiac resynchronization therapy: A report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation appropriate use criteria task force, Heart Rhythm Society, American Heart Association, American Society of Echocardiography, Heart Failure Society of America, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, Society of Cardiovascular Computed Tomography, and Society for Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance. Heart Rhythm, 2013; 10: e11–e58.
61. Böcker D, Block M, Isbruch F et al. Benefits of treatment with implantable cardioverter-defibrillators in patients with stable ventricular tachycardia without cardiac arrest. Br Heart J, 1995; 73: 158–163.
62. Glikson M, Lipchenca I, Viskin S et al. Long-term outcome of patients who received implantable cardioverter defibrillators for stable ventricular tachycardia. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 2004; 15: 658–664.
63. Stevenson WG, Friedman PL, Sager PT et al. Exploring postinfarction reentrant ventricular tachycardia with entrainment mapping. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1997; 29: 1180–1189.
64. Morady F, Kadish A, Rosenheck S et al. Concealed entrainment as a guide for catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia in patients with prior myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1991; 17: 678–689.
65. Shenasa M, Cardinal R, Kus T, Savard P, Fromer M, Pagé P. Termination of sustained ventricular tachycardia by ultrarapid subthreshold stimulation in humans. Circulation, 1988; 78 (5 Part 1): 1135–1143.
66. Gepstein L, Hayam G, Ben-Haim SA. A novel method for nonfluoroscopic catheter-based electroanatomical mapping of the heart. In vitro and in vivo accuracy results. Circulation, 1997; 95: 1611–1622.
67. Klemm HU, Ventura R, Steven D et al. Catheter ablation of multiple ventricular tachycardias after myocardial infarction guided by combined contact and noncontact mapping. Circulation, 2007; 115: 2697–2704.
68. Stevenson WG, Soejima K. Catheter ablation for ventricular tachycardia. Circulation, 2007; 115: 2750–2760.
69. Henz BD, do Nascimento TA, Dietrich C de O et al. Simultaneous epicardial and endocardial substrate mapping and radiofrequency catheter ablation as first-line treatment for ventricular tachycardia and frequent ICD shocks in chronic Chagasic cardiomyopathy. J Interv Card Electrophysiol Int J Arrhythm Pacing, 2009; 26: 195–205.
70. Sosa E, Scanavacca M, d’Avila A, Oliveira F, Ramires JA. Nonsurgical transthoracic epicardial catheter ablation to treat recurrent ventricular tachycardia occurring late after myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2000; 35: 1442–1149.
71. Soejima K, Stevenson WG, Maisel WH, Sapp JL, Epstein LM. Electrically unexcitable scar mapping based on pacing threshold for identification of the reentry circuit isthmus: Feasibility for guiding ventricular tachycardia ablation. Circulation, 2002; 106: 1678–1683.
72. Marchlinski FE, Callans DJ, Gottlieb CD, Zado E. Linear ablation lesions for control of unmappable ventricular tachycardia in patients with ischemic and nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circulation, 2000; 101: 1288–1296.
73. Soejima K, Suzuki M, Maisel WH et al. Catheter ablation in patients with multiple and unstable ventricular tachycardias after myocardial infarction: Short ablation lines guided by reentry circuit isthmuses and sinus rhythm mapping. Circulation, 2001; 104: 664–669.
74. Brunckhorst CB, Stevenson WG, Soejima K et al. Relationship of slow conduction detected by pace-mapping to ventricular tachycardia re-entry circuit sites after infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2003; 41: 802–809.
75. Brunckhorst CB, Delacretaz E, Soejima K, Maisel WH, Friedman PL, Stevenson WG. Identification of the ventricular tachycardia isthmus after infarction by pace mapping. Circulation, 2004; 110: 652–659.
76. Harada T, Stevenson WG, Kocovic DZ, Friedman PL. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia after myocardial infarction: relation of endocardial sinus rhythm late potentials to the reentry circuit. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1997; 30: 1015–1023.
77. Arenal A, Glez-Torrecilla E, Ortiz M et al. Ablation of electrograms with an isolated, delayed component as treatment of unmappable monomorphic ventricular tachycardias in patients with structural heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2003; 41: 81–92.
78. Arenal A, del Castillo S, Gonzalez-Torrecilla E et al. Tachycardia-related channel in the scar tissue in patients with sustained monomorphic ventricular tachycardias: Influence of the voltage scar definition. Circulation, 2004; 110: 2568–2574.
79. Reddy VY, Reynolds MR, Neuzil P et al. Prophylactic catheter ablation for the prevention of defibrillator therapy. N Engl J Med, 2007; 357: 2657–2665.
80. Jaïs P, Maury P, Khairy P et al. Elimination of local abnormal ventricular activities: a new end point for substrate modification in patients with scar-related ventricular tachycardia. Circulation, 2012; 125: 2184–2196.
81. Di Biase L, Santangeli P, Burkhardt DJ et al. Endo-epicardial homogenization of the scar versus limited substrate ablation for the treatment of electrical storms in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2012; 60: 132–141.
82. Vergara P, Trevisi N, Ricco A et al. Late potentials abolition as an additional technique for reduction of arrhythmia recurrence in scar related ventricular tachycardia ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol, 2012; 23: 621–627.
83. Miller MA, Dukkipati SR, Mittnacht AJ et al. Activation and entrainment mapping of hemodynamically unstable ventricular tachycardia using a percutaneous left ventricular assist device. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2011; 58: 1363–1371.
84. Miller MA, Dukkipati SR, Chinitz JS et al. Percutaneous hemodynamic support with Impella 2.5 during scar-related ventricular tachycardia ablation (PERMIT 1). Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2013; 6: 151–159.
85. Reddy YM, Chinitz L, Mansour M et al. Percutaneous left ventricular assist devices in ventricular tachycardia ablation: multi-center experience. Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol, 2014; 7: 244–250.
86. Nazarian S, Bluemke DA, Lardo AC et al. Magnetic resonance assessment of the substrate for inducible ventricular tachycardia in nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circulation, 2005; 112: 2821–2825.
87. Perez-David E, Arenal A, Rubio-Guivernau JL et al. Noninvasive identification of ventricular tachycardia-related conducting channels using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging in patients with chronic myocardial infarction: Comparison of signal intensity scar mapping and endocardial voltage mapping. J Am Coll Cardiol, 2011; 57: 184–194.
88. Bello D, Kipper S, Valderrábano M, Shivkumar K. Catheter ablation of ventricular tachycardia guided by contrast-enhanced cardiac computed tomography. Heart Rhythm, 2004; 1: 490–492.
89. Dickfeld T, Kocher C. The role of integrated PET-CT scar maps for guiding ventricular tachycardia ablations. Curr Cardiol Rep, 2008; 10: 149–157.
90. Cohen TJ, Chien WW, Lurie KG et al. Radiofrequency catheter ablation for treatment of bundle branch reentrant ventricular tachycardia: results and long-term follow-up. J Am Coll Cardiol, 1991; 18: 1767–1773.