The relative importance of phytoplankton aggregates and zooplankton fecal pellets to carbon export: Insights from free-drifting sediment trap deployments in naturally iron-fertilised waters near the Kerguelen Plateau

Biogeosciences

Volumn 12, Issue 4, 2015, Pages 1007-1027

  Laurenceau Cornec, E C ^a,b   Trull, T W ^b,c   Davies, D M ^b   Bray, S G ^b   Doran, J ^d   Planchon, F ^e   Carlotti, F ^f   Jouandet, M P ^f   Cavagna, A J ^g   Waite, A M ^d,h   Blain, S ^i,j  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TASMANIA   (Australia)

^c CSIRO   (Australia)

^d UNIVERSITY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA   (Australia)

^e UNIVERSITÉ DE BRETAGNE OCCIDENTALE   (France)

^f AIX MARSEILLE UNIVERSITY   (France)

^g VRIJE UNIVERSITEIT BRUSSEL   (Belgium)

^h ALFRED WEGENER INSTITUTE FOR POLAR AND MARINE RESEARCH   (Germany)

ⁱ SORBONNE UNIVERSITÉ   (France)

^j LABORATOIRE ARAGO   (France)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGGREGATE; ALGAL BLOOM; CARBON FLUX; COMMUNITY STRUCTURE; ECOSYSTEM STRUCTURE; GRAZING PRESSURE; PHYTOPLANKTON; PRIMARY PRODUCTION; SEDIMENT TRAP; SPATIOTEMPORAL ANALYSIS; ZOOPLANKTON;

INDIAN OCEAN; KERGUELEN PLATEAU;

EID: 84923196924     PISSN: 17264170     EISSN: 17264189     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.5194/bg-12-1007-2015     Document Type: Article

References (93)

1. Alldredge, A.: The carbon, nitrogen and mass content of marine snow as a function of aggregate size, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 45, 529-541, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(97)00048-4, 1998.
2. Alldredge, A. L. and Gotschalk, C. C.: Direct observations of the mass flocculation of diatom blooms: characteristics, settling velocities and formation of diatom aggregates, Deep-Sea Res., 36, 159-171, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(89)90131-3, 1989.
3. Alldredge, A. L. and Jackson, G. A.: Preface: aggregation in marine systems, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 42, 1-7, doi:10.1016/0967-0645(95)90003-9, 1995.
4. Alldredge, A. L. and Silver, M. W.: Characteristics, dynamics and significance of marine snow, Prog. Oceanogr., 20, 41-82, doi:10.1016/0079-6611(88)90053-5, 1988.
5. Armand, L. K., Crosta, X., Queguiner, B., Mosseri, J., and Garcia, N.: Diatoms preserved in surface sediments of the northeastern Kerguelen Plateau, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 55, 677-692, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.12.032, 2008.
6. Bishop, J. K. B., Edmond, J. M., Ketten, D. R., Bacon, M. P., and Silker, W. B.: The chemistry, biology, and vertical flux of particulate matter from the upper 400m of the equatorial Atlantic Ocean, Deep Sea Research, 24, 511-548, doi:10.1016/0146-6291(77)90526-4, 1977.
7. Blain, S., Queguiner, B., Armand, L., Belviso, S., Bombled, B., Bopp, L., Bowie, A., Brunet, C., Brussaard, C., Carlotti, F., Christaki, U., Corbiere, A., Durand, I., Ebersbach, F., Fuda, J. L., Garcia, N., Gerringa, L., Griffiths, B., Guigue, C., Guillerm, C., Jacquet, S., Jeandel, C., Laan, P., Lefevre, D., Lo Monaco, C., Malits, A., Mosseri, J., Obernosterer, I., Park, Y. H., Picheral, M., Pondaven, P., Remenyi, T., Sandroni, V., Sarthou, G., Savoye, N., Scouarnec, L., Souhaut, M., Thuiller, D., Timmermans, K., Trull, T., Uitz, J., van Beek, P., Veldhuis, M., Vincent, D., Viollier, E., Vong, L., and Wagener, T.: Effect of natural iron fertilization on carbon sequestration in the Southern Ocean, Nature, 446, 1070-1074, doi:10.1038/nature05700, 2007.
8. Bowie, A. R., Trull, T. W., and Dehairs, F.: Estimating the sensitivity of the subantarctic zone to environmental change: The SAZ-Sense project, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 58, 2051-2058, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.05.034, 2011.
9. Bowie, A. R., van der Merwe, P., Quéroué, F., Trull, T., Fourquez, M., Planchon, F., Sarthou, G., Chever, F., Townsend, A. T., Obernosterer, I., Sallée, J.-B., and Blain, S.: Iron budgets for three distinct biogeochemical sites around the Kerguelen archipelago (Southern Ocean) during the natural fertilisation experiment KEOPS-2, Biogeosciences Discuss., 11, 17861-17923, doi:10.5194/bgd-11-17861-2014, 2014.
10. Boyd, P. W., Watson, A. J., Law, C. S., Abraham, E. R., Trull, T., Murdoch, R., Bakker, D. C. E., Bowie, A. R., Buesseler, K. O., and Chang, H.: A mesoscale phytoplankton bloom in the polar Southern Ocean stimulated by iron fertilization, Nature, 407, 695-702, doi:10.1038/35037500, 2000.
11. Brinton, E.: Vertical migration and avoidance capability of euphausiids in the California Current, Limnol. Oceanogr., 12, 451-483, doi:10.4319/lo.1967.12.3.0451, 1967.
12. Buesseler, K. O.: The decoupling of production and particulate export in the surface ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 12, 297-310, doi:10.1029/97GB03366, 1998.
13. Buonassissi, C. and Dierssen, H.: A regional comparison of particle size distributions and the power law approximation in oceanicand estuarine surface waters, J. Geophys. Res., 115, C10028, doi:10.1029/2010JC006256, 2010.
14. Burd, A. B. and Jackson, G. A.: Particle aggregation, Annual Review of Marine Science, 1, 65-90, doi:10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163904, 2009.
15. Carlotti, F., Jouandet, M.-P., Nowaczyk, A., Harmelin-Vivien, M., Lefévre, D., Guillou, G., Zhu, Y., and Zhou, M.: Mesozooplankton structure and functioning during the onset of the Kerguelen phytoplankton bloom during the Keops2 survey, Biogeosciences Discuss., 12, 2381-2427, doi:10.5194/bgd-12-2381-2015, 2015.
16. Carroll, M. L., Miquel, J.-C., and Fowler, S. W.: Seasonal patterns and depth-specific trends of zooplankton fecal pellet fluxes in the Northwestern Mediterranean Sea, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 45, 1303-1318, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(98)00013-2, 1998.
17. Cavagna, A.-J., Dehairs, F., Bouillon, S., Woule-Ebongué, V., Planchon, F., Delille, B., and Bouloubassi, I.: Water column distribution and carbon isotopic signal of cholesterol, brassicasterol and particulate organic carbon in the Atlantic sector of the Southern Ocean, Biogeosciences, 10, 2787-2801, doi:10.5194/bg-10-2787-2013, 2013.
18. Cavagna, A. J., Fripiat, F., Elskens, M., Dehairs, F., Mangion, P., Chirurgien, L., Closset, I., Lasbleiz, M., Flores-Leiva, L., Cardinal, D., Leblanc, K., Fernandez, C., Lefévre, D., Oriol, L., Blain, S., and Quéguiner, B.: Biological productivity regime and associated N cycling in the vicinity of Kerguelen Island area, Southern Ocean, Biogeosciences Discuss., 11, 18073-18104, doi:10.5194/bgd-11-18073-2014, 2014.
19. Christaki, U., Lefévre, D., Georges, C., Colombet, J., Catala, P., Courties, C., Sime-Ngando, T., Blain, S., and Obernosterer, I.: Microbial food web dynamics during spring phytoplankton blooms in the naturally iron-fertilized Kerguelen area (Southern Ocean), Biogeosciences, 11, 6739-6753, doi:10.5194/bg-11-6739-2014, 2014.
20. Coale, K. H., Johnson, K. S., Chavez, F. P., Buesseler, K. O., Barber, R. T., Brzezinski, M. A., Cochlan, W. P., Millero, F. J., Falkowski, P. G., Bauer, J. E., Wanninkhof, R. H., Kudela, R. M., Altabet, M. A., Hales, B. E., Takahashi, T., Landry, M. R., Bidigare, R. R., Wang, X., Chase, Z., Strutton, P. G., Friederich, G. E., Gorbunov, M. Y., Lance, V. P., Hilting, A. K., Hiscock, M. R., Demarest, M., Hiscock, W. T., Sullivan, K. F., Tanner, S. J., Gordon, R. M., Hunter, C. N., Elrod, V. A., Fitzwater, S. E., Jones, J. L., Tozzi, S., Koblizek, M., Roberts, A. E., Herndon, J., Brewster, J., Ladizinsky, N., Smith, G., Cooper, D., Timothy, D., Brown, S. L., Selph, K. E., Sheridan, C. C., Twining, B. S., and Johnson, Z. I.: Southern Ocean iron enrichment experiment: carbon cycling in high-and low-Si waters, Science, 304, 408-414, doi:10.1126/science.1089778, 2004.
21. Crocker, K. M. and Passow, U.: Differential aggregation of diatoms, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 117, 249-257, doi:10.3354/meps117249, 1995.
22. de Baar, H. J.W., de Jong, J. T. M., Bakker, D. C. E., Loscher, B. M., Veth, C., Bathmann, U., and Smetacek, V.: Importance of iron for plankton blooms and carbon dioxide drawdown in the Southern Ocean, Nature, 373, 412-415, doi:10.1038/373412a0, 1995.
23. De La Rocha, C. and Passow, U.: Factors influencing the sinking of POC and the efficiency of the biological carbon pump, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 639-658, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.01.004, 2007.
24. d'Ovidio, F., Della Penna, A., Trull, T. W., Nencioli, F., Pujol, I., Rio, M. H., Park, Y.-H., Cotté, C., Zhou, M., and Blain, S.: The biogeochemical structuring role of horizontal stirring: Lagrangian perspectives on iron delivery downstream of the Kerguelen plateau, Biogeosciences Discuss., 12, 779-814, doi:10.5194/bgd-12-779-2015, 2015.
25. Ebersbach, F. and Trull, T. W.: Sinking particle properties from polyacrylamide gels during the KErguelen Ocean and Plateau compared study (KEOPS): Zooplankton control of carbon export in an area of persistent natural iron inputs in the Southern Ocean, Limnol. Oceanogr., 53, 212-224, doi:10.4319/lo.2008.53.1.0212, 2008.
26. Ebersbach, F., Trull, T. W., Davies, D. M., and Bray, S. G.: Controls on mesopelagic particle fluxes in the Sub-Antarctic and Polar Frontal Zones in the Southern Ocean south of Australia in summer -Perspectives from free-drifting sediment traps, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 58, 2260-
27. Eppley, R. W. and Peterson, B. J.: Particulate organic matter flux and planktonic new production in the deep ocean, Nature, 282, 677-680, doi:10.1038/282677a0, 1979.
28. Espinasse, B., Zhou, M., Zhu, Y., Hazen, E., Friedlaender, A., Nowacek, D., Chu, D., and Carlotti, F.: Austral fall-winter transition of mesozooplankton assemblages and krill aggregations in an embayment west of the Antarctic Peninsula, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 452, 63-80, 2012.
29. Fleminger, A. and Clutter, R. I.: Avoidance of towed nets by zooplankton, Limnol. Oceanogr., 10, 96-104, doi:10.4319/lo.1965.10.1.0096, 1965.
30. Fowler, S.W. and Knauer, G. A.: Role of large particles in the transport of elements and organic compounds through the oceanic water column, Prog. Oceanogr., 16, 147-194, doi:10.1016/0079-6611(86)90032-7, 1986.
31. Fowler, S. W. and Small, L. F.: Sinking rates of euphausiid fecal pellets, Limnol. Oceanogr., 17, 293-296, doi:10.4319/lo.1972.17.2.0293, 1972.
32. Gauld, D. T.: A peritrophic membrane in calanoid copepods, Nature, 179, 325-326, doi:10.1038/179325a0, 1957.
33. Giering, S. L. C., Sanders, R., Lampitt, R. S., Anderson, T. R., Tamburini, C., Boutrif, M., Zubkov, M. V., Marsay, C. M., Henson, S. A., Saw, K., Cook, K., and Mayor, D. J.: Reconciliation of the carbon budget in the ocean's twilight zone, Nature, 507, 480-483, doi:10.1038/nature13123, 2014.
34. González, H. E. and Smetacek, V.: The possible role of the cyclopoid copepod Oithona in retarding vertical flux of zooplankton faecal material, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 113, 233-246, doi:10.3354/meps113233, 1994.
35. González, H., González, S., and Brummer, G.: Short-term sedimentation pattern of zooplankton, faeces and microplankton at a permanent station in the Bjørnafjorden (Norway) during April-May 1992, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 105, 31-45, doi:10.3354/meps105031, 1994.
36. González, H. E., Ortiz, V. C., and Sobarzo, M.: The role of faecal material in the particulate organic carbon flux in the northern Humboldt Current, Chile (23 ° S), before and during the 1997-1998 El Niño, J. Plankton Res., 22, 499-529, doi:10.1093/plankt/22.3.499, 2000.
37. González, H. E., Daneri, G., Iriarte, J. L., Yannicelli, B., Menschel, E., Barría, C., Pantoja, S., and Lizárraga, L.: Carbon fluxes within the epipelagic zone of the Humboldt Current System off Chile: The significance of euphausiids and diatoms as key functionalgroups for the biological pump, Prog. Oceanogr., 83, 217-227, doi:10.1016/j.pocean.2009.07.036, 2009.
38. Guidi, L., Stemmann, L., Jackson, G. A., Ibanez, F., Claustre, H., Legendre, L., Picheral, M., and Gorsky, G.: Effects of phytoplankton community on production, size and export of large aggregates: a world-ocean analysis, Limnol. Oceanogr., 54, 1951-1963, doi:10.4319/lo.2009.54.6.1951, 2009.
39. Hargraves, P. E. and French, F.: Diatom resting spores: Significance and strategies, in: Survival Strategies of the Algae, edited by: Fryxell, G., Cambridge University Press, New York, 49-68, 1983.
40. Iversen, M. H. and Poulsen, L.: Coprorhexy, coprophagy, and coprochaly in the copepods Calanus helgolandicus, Pseudocalanus elongatus, and Oithona similis, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 350, 79-89, doi:10.3354/meps07095, 2007.
41. Jackson, G. A.: A model of the formation of marine algal flocs by physical coagulation processes, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 37, 1197-1211, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(90)90038-W, 1990.
42. Jackson, G. A.: Coagulation theory and models of oceanic plankton aggregation, in: Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, CRC Press, 271-292, 2005.
43. Jackson, G. A., Maffione, R., Costello, D. K., Alldredge, A. L., Logan, B. E., and Dam, H. G.: Particle size spectra between 1 μm and 1 cm at Monterey Bay determined using multiple instruments, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 44, 1739-1767, doi:10.1016/S0967-0637(97)00029-0, 1997.
44. Jackson, G. A., Waite, A. M., and Boyd, P. W.: Role of algal aggregation in vertical carbon export during SOIREE and in other low biomass environments, Geophys. Res. Lett., 32, L13607, doi:10.1029/2005gl023180, 2005.
45. Jacquet, S. H. M., Lam, P. J., Trull, T., and Dehairs, F.: Carbon export production in the subantarctic zone and polar front zone south of Tasmania, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 58, 2277-2292, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2011.05.035, 2011.
46. Jannasch, H. W., Zafiriou, O. C., and Farrington, J. W.: A sequencing sediment trap for time-series studies of fragile particles, Limnol. Oceanogr., 25, 939-943, doi:10.4319/lo.1980.25.5.0939, 1980.
47. Kuwata, A. and Takahashi, M.: Life-form population responses of a marine planktonic diatom, Chaetoceros pseudocurvisetus, to oligotrophication in regionally upwelled water, Mar. Biol., 107, 503-512, doi:10.1007/BF01313435, 1990.
48. Lam, P. J. and Bishop, J. K. B.: High biomass, low export regimes in the Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 601-638, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.01.013, 2007.
49. Lam, P. J., Doney, S. C., and Bishop, J. K. B.: The dynamic ocean biological pump: Insights from a global compilation of particulate organic carbon, CaCO3, and opal concentration profiles from the mesopelagic, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 25, GB3009, doi:10.1029/2010GB003868, 2011.
50. Lampitt, R. S., Noji, T., and Bodungen, B.: What happens to zooplankton faecal pellets? Implications for material flux, Mar. Biol., 104, 15-23, doi:10.1007/BF01313152, 1990.
51. Lasbleiz, M., Leblanc, K., Blain, S., Ras, J., Cornet-Barthaux, V., Hélias Nunige, S., and Quéguiner, B.: Pigments, elemental composition (C, N, P, Si) and stoichiometry of particulate matter, in the naturally iron fertilized region of Kerguelen in the Southern Ocean, Biogeosciences, 11, 5931-5955, doi:10.5194/bg-11-5931-2014, 2014.
52. Laurenceau-Cornec, E. C., Trull, T. W., Davies, D., De La Rocha, C. L., and Blain, S.: Phytoplankton morphology controls on marine snow sinking velocity, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 520, 35-56, doi:10.3354/meps11116, 2015.
53. Lefévre, D., Guigue, C., and Obernosterer, I.: The metabolic balance at two contrasting sites in the Southern Ocean: the ironfertilized Kerguelen area and HNLC waters, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 55, 766-776, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.12.006, 2008.
54. Lundsgaard, C.: Use of a high viscosity medium in studies of aggregates, in: Sediment Trap Studies in the Nordic Countries. 3. Proceeding of the Symposium on Seasonal Dynamics of Planktonic Ecosystems and Sedimentation in Coastal Nordic Waters. Finnish Environment Agency, edited by: Floderus, S., Heisakanen, A. S., Oleson, M., and Wassmann, P., Numi Print, Oy, Germany, 141-152, 1995.
55. Maiti, K., Charette, M. A., Buesseler, K. O., and Kahru, M.: An inverse relationship between production and export efficiency in the Southern Ocean, Geophys. Res. Lett., 40, 1557-1561, doi:10.1002/grl.50219, 2013.
56. Martens, P.: Faecal pellets, in: Fiches d'identification du zooplancton, edited by: Fraser, J. H., Conseil International pour l'Exploration de la Mer, 162, p. 4, 1978.
57. Martin, J. H.: Glacial-interglacial CO2 change: the iron hypothesis, Paleoceanography, 5, 1-13, doi:10.1029/PA005i001p00001, 1990.
58. Martin, J. H., Knauer, G. A., Karl, D. M., and Broenkow, W. W.: VERTEX: carbon cycling in the northeast Pacific, Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 34, 267-285, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(87)90086-0, 1987.
59. McCave, I. N.: Size spectra and aggregation of suspended particles in the deep ocean, Deep-Sea Res., 31, 329-352, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(84)90088-8, 1984.
60. McDonnell, A. M. P. and Buesseler, K. O.: Variability in the average sinking velocity of marine particles, Limnol. Oceanogr., 55, 2085-2096, doi:10.4319/lo.2010.55.5.2085, 2010.
61. Michaels, A. F. and Silver, M. W.: Primary production, sinking fluxes and the microbial food web, Deep-Sea Res., 35, 473-490, doi:10.1016/0198-0149(88)90126-4, 1988.
62. Morris, P. J., Sanders, R., Turnewitsch, R., and Thomalla, S.: 234Thderived particulate organic carbon export from an island-induced phytoplankton bloom in the Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 2208-2232, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.06.002, 2007.
63. Mosseri, J., Quéguiner, B., Armand, L., and Cornet-Barthaux, V.: Impact of iron on silicon utilization by diatoms in the Southern Ocean: A case study of Si/N cycle decoupling in a naturally iron-enriched area, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 55, 801-819, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.12.003, 2008.
64. Park, Y.-H., Charriaud, E., Pino, D. R., and Jeandel, C.: Seasonal and interannual variability of the mixed layer properties and steric height at station KERFIX, southwest of Kerguelen, J. Marine Syst., 17, 571-586, doi:10.1016/S0924-7963(98)00065-7, 1998.
65. Pilskaln, C. H. and Honjo, S.: The fecal pellet fraction of biogeochemical particle fluxes to the deep sea, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 1, 31-48, doi:10.1029/GB001i001p00031, 1987.
66. Planchon, F., Ballas, D., Cavagna, A.-J., Bowie, A. R., Davies, D., Trull, T. W., Laurenceau-Cornec, E. C., van der Merwe, P., and Dehairs, F.: Carbon export in the naturally iron-fertilized Kerguelen area of the Southern Ocean based on the 234Th approach, Biogeosciences Discuss., 11, 15991-16032, doi:10.5194/bgd-11-15991-2014, 2014.
67. Pollard, R., Sanders, R., Lucas, M., and Statham, P.: The Crozet Natural Iron Bloom and Export Experiment (CROZEX), Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 1905-1914, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.07.023, 2007.
68. Quéguiner, B.: Iron fertilization and the structure of planktonic communities in high nutrient regions of the Southern Ocean, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 90, 43-54, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2012.07.024, 2013.
69. Riebesell, U., Schloss, I., and Smetacek, V.: Aggregation of algae released from melting sea ice: implications for seeding and sedimentation, Polar Biol., 11, 239-248, doi:10.1007/bf00238457, 1991.
70. Rynearson, T. A., Richardson, K., Lampitt, R. S., Sieracki, M. E., Poulton, A. J., Lyngsgaard, M. M., and Perry, M. J.: Major contribution of diatom resting spores to vertical flux in the sub-polar North Atlantic, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. I, 82, 60-71, doi:10.1016/j.dsr.2013.07.013, 2013.
71. Salter, I., Lampitt, R. S., Sanders, R., Poulton, A., Kemp, A. E. S., Boorman, B., Saw, K., and Pearce, R.: Estimating carbon, silica and diatom export from a naturally fertilised phytoplankton bloom in the Southern Ocean using PELAGRA: A novel drifting sediment trap, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 54, 2233-2259, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.06.008, 2007.
72. Salter, I., Kemp, A. E. S., Moore, C. M., Lampitt, R. S., Wolff, G. A., and Holtvoeth, J.: Diatom resting spore ecology drives enhanced carbon export from a naturally iron-fertilized bloom in the Southern Ocean, Global Biogeochem. Cy., 26, GB1014, doi:10.1029/2010GB003977, 2012.
73. Savoye, N., Trull, T. W., Jacquet, S. H. M., Navez, J., and Dehairs, F.: 234Th-based export fluxes during a natural iron fertilization experiment in the Southern Ocean (KEOPS), Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 55, 841-855, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2007.12.036, 2008.
74. Sigman, D. M. and Boyle, E. A.: Glacial/interglacial variations in atmospheric carbon dioxide, Nature, 407, 859-869, doi:10.1038/35038000, 2000.
75. Silver, M. W. and Gowing, M. M.: The "Particle" Flux: origins and biological components, Prog. Oceanogr., 26, 75-113, doi:10.1016/0079-6611(91)90007-9, 1991.
76. Small, L. F., Fowler, S. W., and Ünlü, M. Y.: Sinking rates of natural copepod fecal pellets, Mar. Biol., 51, 233-241, doi:10.1007/BF00386803, 1979.
77. Smetacek, V., Klaas, C., Strass, V. H., Assmy, P., Montresor, M., Cisewski, B., Savoye, N., Webb, A., d'Ovidio, F., Arrieta, J. M., Bathmann, U., Bellerby, R., Berg, G. M., Croot, P., Gonzalez, S., Henjes, J., Herndl, G. J., Hoffmann, L. J., Leach, H., Losch, M., Mills, M. M., Neill, C., Peeken, I., Rottgers, R., Sachs, O., Sauter, E., Schmidt, M. M., Schwarz, J., Terbruggen, A., and Wolf-Gladrow, D.: Deep carbon export from a Southern Ocean iron-fertilized diatom bloom, Nature, 487, 313-319, doi:10.1038/nature11229, 2012.
78. Suess, E.: Particulate organic carbon flux in the oceans -surface productivity and oxygen utilization, Nature, 288, 260-263, doi:10.1038/288260a0, 1980.
79. Suzuki, H., Sasaki, H., and Fukuchi, M.: Loss processes of sinking fecal pellets of zooplankton in the mesopelagic layers of the Antarctic Marginal Ice Zone, J. Oceanogr., 59, 809-818, doi:10.1023/B:JOCE.0000009572.08048.0d, 2003.
80. Trull, T. W., Bray, S. G., Buesseler, K. O., Lamborg, C. H., Manganini, S., Moy, C., and Valdes, J.: In situ measurement of mesopelagic particle sinking rates and the control of carbon transfer to the ocean interior during the Vertical Flux in the Global Ocean (VERTIGO) voyages in the North Pacific, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 55, 1684-1695, doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2008.04.021, 2008.
81. Trull, T. W., Davies, D. M., Dehairs, F., Cavagna, A.-J., Lasbleiz, M., Laurenceau-Cornec, E. C., d'Ovidio, F., Planchon, F., Leblanc, K., Quéguiner, B., and Blain, S.: Chemometric perspectives on plankton community responses to natural iron fertilization over and downstream of the Kerguelen Plateau in the Southern Ocean, Biogeosciences Discuss., 11, 13841-13903, doi:10.5194/bgd-11-13841-2014, 2014.
82. Turner, J. T.: Zooplankton fecal pellets, marine snow and sinking phytoplankton blooms, Aquat. Microb. Ecol., 27, 57-102, doi:10.3354/ame027057, 2002.
83. Urban-Rich, J., Hansell, D. A., and Roman, M. R.: Analysis of copepod fecal pellet carbon using a high temperature combustion method, Mar. Ecol.-Prog. Ser., 171, 199-208, doi:10.3354/meps171199, 1998.
84. Volk, T. and Hoffert, M. I.: Ocean carbon pumps: Analysis of relative strengths and efficiencies in ocean-driven atmospheric CO2 changes, in: The Carbon Cycle and Atmospheric CO2: Natural Variations Archean to Present, edited by: Sundquist, E. T. and Broecker, W. S., AGU, Washington, DC, 99-110, 1985.
85. Waite, A. M. and Nodder, S. D.: The effect of in situ iron addition on the sinking rates and export flux of Southern Ocean diatoms, Deep-Sea Res. Pt. II, 48, 2635-2654, doi:10.1016/S0967-0645(01)00012-1, 2001.
86. Wallace, M. I., Cottier, F. R., Brierley, A. S., and Tarling, G. A.: Modelling the influence of copepod behaviour on faecal pellet export at high latitudes, Polar Biol., 36, 579-592, doi:10.1007/s00300-013-1287-7, 2013.
87. Wassmann, P.: Relationship between primary and export production in the boreal coastal zone of the North Atlantic, Limnol. Oceanogr., 35, 464-471, doi:10.4319/lo.1990.35.2.0464, 1990.
88. Wassmann, P.: Retention vs. export food chains: processes controlling sinking loss from marine pelagic systems, Hydrobiologia, 363, 29-57, doi:10.1023/A:1003113403096, 1998.
89. Wassmann, P., Ypma, J. E., and Tselepides, A.: Vertical flux of faecal pellets and microplankton on the shelf of the oligotrophic Cretan Sea (NE Mediterranean Sea), Prog. Oceanogr., 46, 241-258, doi:10.1016/S0079-6611(00)00021-5, 2000.
90. Wiebe, P. H., Burt, K. H., Boyd, S. H., and Morton, A.W.: A multiple opening/closing net and environment sensing system for sampling zooplankton, J. Mar. Res., 34, 313-326, 1976.
91. Wiebe, P. H., Boyd, S., Davis, B., and Cox, J.: Avoidance of towed nets by the euphausiid Nematoscelis megalops, Fish. B-NOAA, 80, 75-91, 1982.
92. Yoon, W., Kim, S., and Han, K.: Morphology and sinking velocities of fecal pellets of copepod, molluscan, euphausiid, and salp taxa in the northeastern tropical Atlantic, Mar. Biol., 139, 923-928, doi:10.1007/s002270100630, 2001.
93. Zhou, M., Zhu, Y., d'Ovidio, F., Park, Y.-H., Durand, I., Kestenare, E., Sanial, V., Van-Beek, P., Queguiner, B., Carlotti, F., and Blain, S.: Surface currents and upwelling in Kerguelen Plateau regions, Biogeosciences Discuss., 11, 6845-6876, doi:10.5194/bgd-11-6845-2014, 2014.