Managing CAP patients at risk of clinical failure

Respiratory Medicine

Volumn 109, Issue 2, 2015, Pages 157-169

  Welte, Tobias ^a  

^a HANNOVER MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Germany)

Author keywords

'At risk' patient; Age; Biomarkers; Community acquired pneumonia; Comorbidity; Therapeutic management

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BETA LACTAM ANTIBIOTIC; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; MACROLIDE; MOXIFLOXACIN; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE;

AGE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; BACTERIA; CLINICAL ASSESSMENT; COMMUNITY ACQUIRED PNEUMONIA; COMORBIDITY; DISEASE PREDISPOSITION; DISEASE SEVERITY; HIGH RISK PATIENT; HOSPITALIZATION; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; MORTALITY; PATHOGENESIS; PATIENT CARE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROGNOSIS; RESIDENTIAL AREA; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK BENEFIT ANALYSIS; RISK FACTOR; VIRUS; COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; PNEUMONIA;

COMMUNITY-ACQUIRED INFECTIONS; HUMANS; PNEUMONIA; PROGNOSIS; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84923008384     PISSN: 09546111     EISSN: 15323064     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2014.10.018     Document Type: Review

References (128)

1. T. File, and T.J. Marrie Burden of community-acquired pneumonia in North American adults Postgrad Med 122 2010 130 141
2. T. Welte, N. Suttorp, and R. Marre CAPNETZ - community-acquired pneumonia competence network Infection 32 2004 234 238
3. J. Almirall, I. Bolibar, J. Vidal, G. Sauca, P. Coll, and B. Niklasson Epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia in adults: a population-based study Eur Respir J 15 2000 757 763
4. G.W. Ruhnke, M. Coca-Perraillon, B.T. Kitch, and D.M. Cutler Marked reduction in 30-day mortality among elderly patients with community-acquired pneumonia Am J Med 124 2011 171 178
5. T. Welte Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia among adults in Europe Thorax 67 2012 71 79
6. S. Ewig, B. Klapdor, M.W. Pletz, G. Rohde, H. Schütte, and T. Schaberg Nursing home-acquired pneumonia ion Germany: an 8-year prospective multicentre study Thorax 67 2012 132 138
7. V. Kaplan, D.C. Angus, M.F. Griffin, G. Clermont, and R. Scott Watson Hospitalized community-acquired pneumonia in the elderly Am J Respir Crit Care Med 165 2002 766 772
8. C. Jokinen, L. Heiskanen, H. Juvonen, S. Kallinen, K. Karkola, and M. Korppi Incidence of community-acquired pneumonia in the population of four municipalities in eastern Finland Am J Epidemiol 137 1993 977 988
9. J.T. Macfarlane, A. Colville, A. Guion, R.M. Macfarlane, and D.H. Rose Prospective study of aetiology and outcome of adult lower respiratory tract infections in the community Lancet 341 1993 511 514
10. M.L. Jackson, K.M. Neuzil, W.W. Thompson, D.K. Shay, O. Yu, and C.A. Hanson The burden of community-acquired pneumonia in seniors: results of a population-based study Clin Infect Dis 39 2004 1642 1650
11. T.T. Bauer, T. Welte, C. Ernen, B.M. Schlosser, I. Thate-Waschke, and J. de Zeeuw Cost analyses of community-acquired pneumonia from the hospital perspective CHEST 128 2005 2238 2246
12. S. Ewig, N. Birkner, R. Strauss, E. Schaefer, J. Pauletzki, and H. Bischoff New perspectives on community-acquired pneumonia in 388 406 patients. Results from a nationwide mandatory performance measurement programme in healthcare quality Thorax 64 2009 1062 1069
13. J.D. Chalmers ICU admission and severity assessment in community-acquired pneumonia Crit Care 13 2009 156
14. M. Christ-Crain, N.G. Morgenthaler, D. Stolz, C. Müller, R. Bingisser, and S. Harbarth Pro-adrenomedullin to predict severity and outcome in community-acquired pneumonia [ISRCTN04176397] Crit Care 10 2006 R96
15. S. Krüger, S. Ewig, J. Papassotiriou, J. Kunde, R. Marre, and H. von Baum Inflammatory parameters predict etiologic patterns but do not allow for individual prediction of etiology in patients with CAP: results from the German competence network CAPNETZ Respir Res 10 2009 65
16. J.H. Kim, J.W. Seo, J.H. Mok, M.H. Kim, W.H. Cho, and K. Lee Usefulness of plasma procalcitonin to predict severity in elderly patients with community-acquired pneumonia Tuberc Respir Dis Seoul 74 2013 207 214
17. H. Koch, H. Landen, and K. Stauch Once-daily moxifloxacin therapy for community-acquired pneumonia in general practice: evidence from a post-marketing surveillance study of 1467 patients Clin Drug Investig 24 2004 441 448
18. L.M. Bjerre, T.J. Verheij, and M.M. Kochen Antibiotics for community acquired pneumonia in adult outpatients Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2 2004 CD002109
19. G.D. Mills, M.R. Oehley, and B. Arrol Effectiveness of beta lactam antibiotics compared with antibiotics active against atypical pathogens in non-severe community acquired pneumonia: meta-analysis BMJ 330 2005 456
20. M. Woodhead, F. Blasi, S. Ewig, J. Garau, G. Huchon, and M. Ieven Guidelines for the management of adult lower respiratory tract infections - full version Clin Microbiol Infect 17 Suppl. 6 2011 E1 E59
21. B. Rosón, J. Carratalà, N. Fernández-Sabé, F. Tubau, F. Manresa, and F. Gudiol Causes and factors associated with early failure in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia Arch Intern Med 164 2004 502 508
22. H. Kothe, T. Bauer, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, T. Welte, and K. Dalhoff Outcome of community-acquired pneumonia: influence of age, residence status and antimicrobial treatment Eur Respir J 32 2008 139 146
23. M.I. Restrepo, E.M. Mortensen, J. Rello, J. Brody, and A. Anzueto Late admission to the ICU in patients with community-acquired pneumonia is associated with higher mortality Chest 137 2010 552 557
24. C. van de Nadort, H.M. Smeets, J. Bont, N.P. Zuithoff, E. Hak, and T.J. Verheij Prognosis of primary care patients aged 80 years and older with lower respiratory tract infection Br J Gen Pract 59 2009 e110 e115
25. T. Welte, and T. Köhnlein Global and local epidemiology of community-acquired pneumonia: the experience of the CAPNEZT network Semin Respir Crit Care Med 30 2009 127 135
26. G.R. Donowitz, and H.L. Cox Bacterial community-acquired pneumonia in older patients Clin Geriatr Med 23 2007 515 534
27. E. Polverino, P. Dambrava, C. Cilloniz, V. Balasso, M.A. Marcos, and C. Esquinas Nursing home-acquired pneumonia: a 10 year single-centre experience Thorax 65 2010 354 359
28. M.I. Restrepo, E.M. Mortensen, G.W. Waterer, R.G. Wunderlink, J.J. Coalson, and A. Anzueto Impact of macrolide therapy on mortality for patients with severe sepsis due to pneumonia Eur Respir J 33 2009 153 159
29. S. Henken, J. Bohling, J. Martens-Lobenhoffer, J.C. Paton, A.D. Ogunniyi, and D.E. Briles Efficacy profiles of daptomycin for treatment of invasive and non-invasive pulmonary infections with Streptococcus pneumoniae Antimicrob Agents Chemother 54 2010 707 717
30. C.P. Chong, and P.R. Street Pneumonia in the elderly: a review of the epidemiology, pathogenesis, microbiology, and clinical features South Med J 101 2008 1141 1145
31. C. Taneja, N. Haque, G. Oster, A.F. Shorr, S. Zilber, and P.O. Kyan Clinical and economic outcomes in patients with community-acquired Staphylococcus aureus pneumonia J Hosp Med 5 2010 528 534
32. G.J. Moran, A. Krishnadasan, R.J. Gorwitz, G.E. Fosheim, V. Albrecht, and B. Limbago Prevalence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus as an etiology of community-acquired pneumonia Clin Infect Dis 54 2012 1126 1133
33. A.R. Shorr, D.E. Myers, D.B. Huang, B.H. Nathanson, M.F. Emons, and M.H. Kollef A risk score for identifying methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in patients presenting to the hospital with pneumonia BMC Infect Des 13 2013 268
34. E. Tacconelli, L. Ventataraman, P.C. De Girolmi, and M.C. D'Agata Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus bacteraemia diagnosed at hospital admission: distinguishing between community-acquired versus healthcare-associated strains J Antimicrob Chemother 53 2004 474 479
35. L.D. Saravolatz, D.J. Pohlod, and L.M. Arking Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections: a new source for nosocomial outbreaks Ann Intern Med 97 1982 325 329
36. E.D. Charlebois, F. Perdreau-Remington, B. Kreiswirth, D.R. Bangsberg, D. Ciccarone, and B.A. Diep Origins of community strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Clin Infect Dis 39 2004 47 54
37. T.J. Kowalski, E.F. Berbari, and D.R. Osmon Epidemiology, treatment and prevention of community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections Mayo Clin Proc 80 2005 1201 1208
38. H. Von Baum, S. Ewig, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, S. Gonschior, and T. Welte Community-acquired Legionella pneumonia: new insights from the German competence network for community-acquired pneumonia Clin Infect Dis 46 2008 1356 1364
39. F. Lagerström, M. Bader, M. Foldevi, H. Fredlund, I. Nordin-Olsson, and H. Holmberg Microbiological etiology in clinically diagnosed community-acquired pneumonia in primary care in Orebo, Sweden Clin Microbiol Infect 9 2003 645 652
40. J.E. Stupka, E.M. Mortensen, A. Anzueto, and M.I. Restrepo Community-acquired pneumonia in elderly patients Aging Health 5 2009 763 774
41. J.-H. Song, V. Thamlikitkul, and P.-R. Hsueh Clinical and economic burden of community-acquired pneumonia amongst adults in the Asia-Pacific region Int J Antimicrob Agents 38 2011 108 117
42. Y. Liu, M. Chen, T. Zhao, H. Wang, R. Wang, and B. Cai Causative agent distribution and antibiotic therapy assessment among adult patients with community acquired pneumonia in Chinese urban population BMC Infect Dis 18 9 2009 31
43. Y.-D. Yin, F. Zhao, L.-L. Ren, S.-F. Song, Y.-M. Liu, and J.-Z. Zhang Evaluation of the Japanese Respiratory Society guidelines for the identification of Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia Respirology 17 2012 1131 1136
44. N. Miyashita, H. Fukano, K. Mouri, M. Fukuda, K. Yoshida, and Y. Kobashi Community-acquired pneumonia in Japan: a prospective ambulatory and hospitalized patient study J Med Microbiol 54 2005 395 400
45. T.P. Atkinson, M.F. Balish, and K.B. Waites Epidemiology, clinical manifestations, pathogenesis and laboratory detection of Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections FEMS Microbiol Rev 32 2008 956 973
46. B. Cao, C.-J. Zhao, Y.-D. Yin, F. Zhao, S.-F. Song, and L. Bai High prevalence of macrolide resistance in Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates from adult and adolescent patients with respiratory tract infection in China Clin Infect Dis 51 2010 189 194
47. F. Zhao, M. Lv, X. Tao, H. Huang, B. Zhang, and Z. Zhang Antibiotic sensitivity of 40 Mycoplasma pneumoniae isolates and molecular analysis of macrolide-resistant isolates from Beijing, China Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56 2012 1108 1109
48. H. Von Baum, T. Welte, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, C. Lück, and S. Ewig Mycoplasma pneumoniae pneumonia revisited within the German Competence Network for Community-acquired pneumonia (CAPNETZ) BMC Infect Dis 9 2009 62
49. N. Wellinghausen, E. Straube, H. Freidank, H. von Baum, R. Marre, and A. Essig Low prevalence of Chlamydia pneumoniae in adults with community-acquired pneumonia Int J Med Microbiol 296 7 2006 485 491
50. T. Welte Risk factors and severity scores in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia: prediction of severity and mortality Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 31 2012 33 47
51. H. Von Baum, T. Welte, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, S. Ewig for the CAPNETZ Study Group Community-acquired pneumonia through Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa: diagnosis, incidence and predictors Eur Respir J 35 2010 598 605
52. Jones RN, Sader HS, Flamm RK, Streit JM, Mendes RM, Castanheira M. Resistance surveillance programme report for European Nations (2011). Presented 23rd European Congress of clinical Microbiology and infectious diseases, 27-30 April, 2013, Berlin, Germany, Poster 1503.
53. Mendes RM, Jones RN, Mendoza M, Castanheira M, Bell JM, Turnidge JD. Emerging markets resistance surveillance programme report for 12 Asia-Pacific Nations (2011). Presented at 9th International Symposium on antimicrobial agents and resistance, 13-15 March, 2013, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, Poster 179.
54. M. Tumbarello, P. Viale, C. Viscoli, E.M. Trecarichi, F. Tumietto, and A. Marchese Predictors of mortality in bloodstream infections caused by Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase-producing K. pneumoniae: importance of combination therapy Clin Infect Dis 55 7 2012 943 950
55. Z.A. Qureshi, D.L. Paterson, B.A. Potoski, M.C. Kilayko, G. Sandovsky, and E. Sordillo Treatment outcome of bacteremia due to KPC-producing Klebsiella pneumoniae: superiority of combination antimicrobial regimens Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56 4 2012 2108 2113
56. S.H. Choi, S.B. Hong, G.B. Ko, Y. Lee, H.J. Park, and S.Y. Park Viral infection in patients with severe pneumonia requiring intensive care unit admission Am J Respir Crit Care Med 186 4 2012 325 332
57. H. Von Baum, B. Schweiger, T. Welte, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, and M.W. Pletz How deadly is seasonal influenza-associated pneumonia? The German competence network for community-acquired pneumonia Eur Respir J 37 5 2011 1151 1157
58. C. Cillóniz, S. Ewig, E. Polverino, M.A. Marcos, C. Esquinas, and A. Gabarrús Microbial aetiology of community-acquired pneumonia and its relation to severity Thorax 66 4 2011 340 346
59. J. Vernatter, and L.A. Pirofski Current concepts in host-microbe interaction leading to pneumococcal pneumonia Curr Opin Infect Dis 26 3 2013 277 283
60. W.S. Lim, M.M. van der Eerden, R. Laing, W.G. Boersma, N. Karalus, and G.I. Town Defining community acquired pneumonia severity on presentation to hospital: an international derivation and validation study Thorax 58 2003 377 382
61. M.J. Fine, T.E. Auble, D.M. Yealy, B.H. Hanusa, L.A. Weissfeld, and D.E. Singer A prediction rule to identify low-risk patients with community-acquired pneumonia N Engl J Med 336 1997 243 250
62. L.A. Mandell, R.G. Wunderink, A. Anzueto, J.G. Bartlett, G.D. Campbell, and N.C. Dean Infectious diseases society of America/American thoracic society consensus guidelines on the management of community-acquired pneumonia in adults Clin Infect Dis 44 Suppl. 2 2007 S27 S72
63. T.T. Bauer, S. Ewig, R. Marre, N. Suttorp, T. Welte CAPNETZ Study Group CRB-65 predicts death from community-acquired pneumonia J Intern Med 260 2006 93 101
64. O. Ochoa-Gondar, A. Vila-Corcoles, T. Rodriguez-Blanco, F. Ramos, C. de Diego, and E. Salsench Comparison of three predictive rules for assessing severity in elderly patients with CAP Int J Clin Pract 65 11 2011 1165 1172
65. M. Falcone, S. Corrao, M. Venditti, P. Serra, and G. Licata Performance of PSI, CURB-65, and SCAP scores in predicting the outcome of patients with community-acquired and healthcare-associated pneumonia Intern Emerg Med 6 5 2011 431 436
66. U. Thiem, D. Niklaus, B. Sehlhoff, C. Stückle, H.J. Heppner, and H.G. Endres C-reactive protein, severity of pneumonia and mortality in elderly, hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia Age Ageing 38 2009 693 697
67. K. Beier, S. Eppanapally, H.S. Bazick, D. Chang, K. Mahadevappa, and F.K. Gibbons Elevation of blood urea nitrogen is predictive of long-term mortality in critically ill patients independent of "normal" creatinine Crit Care Med 39 2011 305 313
68. S. Kruger, S. Ewig, S. Glersdorf, O. Hartmann, N. Suttorp, and T. Welte Cardiovascular and inflammatory biomarkers to predict short- and long-term survival in CAP Am J Respir Crit Care Med 182 2010 1426 1434
69. M. Potocki, T. Breidthardt, A. Mueller, T. Reichlin, T. Socrates, and N. Arenja Copeptin and risk stratification in patients with acute dyspnea Crit Care 14 2010 R213
70. S. Kruger, S. Ewig, R. Marre, J. Papassotiriou, K. Richter, and H. von Baum Procalcitonin predicts patients at low risk of death from CAP across all CRB-65 classes Eur Respir J 31 2008 349 355
71. P.M. Lepper, S. Ott, E. Nuesch, M. von Eynatten, C. Schumann, and M.W. Pletz Serum glucose levels for predicting death in patients admitted to hospital for CAP: prospective cohort study BMJ 344 2012 e3397
72. M. Kolditz, G. Höffken, P. Martus, G. Rohde, H. Schütte, and R. Bals Serum cortisol predicts death and critical disease independently of CRB-65 score in community-acquired pneumonia: a prospective observational cohort study BMC Infect Dis 12 2012 90
73. B. Klapdor, S. Ewig, M.W. Pletz, G. Rohde, H. Schütte, and T. Schaberg Community-acquired pneumonia in younger patients is an entity on its own Eur Respir J 39 2012 1156 1161
74. K.C. Meyer The role of immunity in susceptibility to respiratory infection in the aging lung Respir Physiol 128 2001 23 31
75. J. Ramirez, S. Aliberti, M. Mirsaeidi, P. Peyrani, G. Filardo, and A. Amir Acute myocardial infarction in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia Clin Infect Dis 47 2008 182 187
76. V.F. Corrales-Medina, D.M. Musher, G.A. Wells, J.A. Chirinos, L. Chen, and M.J. Fine Cardiac complications in patients with community-acquired pneumonia Circulation 125 2012 773 781
77. R.E. Hirschtick, J. Glassroth, M.C. Jordan, T.C. Wilcosky, J.M. Wallace, and P.A. Kvale Bacterial pneumonia in persons infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Pulmonary complications of HIV infection study group N Engl J Med 333 1995 845 851
78. W.H. Goodnight, and D.E. Soper Pneumonia in pregnancy Crit Care Med 33 10 Suppl. 2005 S390 S397
79. L. Joos, and M. Tamm Breakdown of pulmonary host defense in the immunocompromised host: cancer chemotherapy Proc Am Thorac Soc 2 2005 445 448
80. A. Atasever, F. Bacakoglu, F.E. Uysal, S. Nalbantgil, T. Karyagdi, and A. Guzelant Pulmonary complications in heart transplant recipients Transpl Proc 38 2006 1530 1534
81. D. Sousa, I. Just, A. Dominiguez, A. Manzur, C. Izquierdo, and L. Ruiz Community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompromised older patients: incidence, causative organisms and outcome Clin Microbiol Infect 19 2013 187 193
82. K.M. Sanders, T.K. Marras, and C.K. Chan Pneumonia severity index in the immunocompromised Can Respir J 13 Mar 2006 89 93
83. S. Cebular, S. Lee, P. Tolaney, and L. Lutwick Community-acquired pneumonia in immunocompromised patients. Opportunistic infections to consider in differential diagnosis Postgrad Med 113 2003 65 66
84. A. Torres, S. Ewig, J. Insausti, J.M. Guergué, A. Xaubet, and A. Mas Etiology and microbial patterns of pulmonary infiltrates in patients with orthotopic liver transplantation Chest 117 2000 494 502
85. E. Martínez-Moragón, L. García-Ferrer, B. Serra-Sanchis, E. Fernández-Fabrellas, A. Gómez-Belda, and R. Julve-Pardo Community-acquired pneumonia among the elderly: differences between patients living at home and in nursing homes Arch Bronconeumol 40 2004 547 552
86. W.S. Lim, and J.T. MacFarlane A prospective comparison of nursing home acquired pneumonia with community acquired pneumonia Eur Respir J 18 2001 362 368
87. A.A. El Solh, P. Sikka, F. Ramadan, and J. Davies Etiology of severe pneumonia in the very elderly Am J Respir Crit Care Med 163 2001 645 651
88. J. Carratalà, A. Mykietiuk, N. Fernández-Sabé, C. Suárez, J. Dorca, and R. Verdaguer Health care-associated pneumonia requiring hospital admission: epidemiology, antibiotic therapy, and clinical outcomes Arch Intern Med 167 2007 1393 1399
89. P.A. Tambyah, A.G. Habib, T.M. Ng, H. Goh, and G. Kumarasinghe Community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection in Singapore is usually 'healthcare associated' Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 24 2003 436 438
90. T.S. Naimi, K.H. LeDell, K. Como-Sabetti, S.M. Borchardt, D.J. Boxrud, and J. Etienne Comparison of community- and health care-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infection JAMA 290 2003 2976 2984
91. S. Ewig, T. Welte, J. Chastre, and A. Torres Rethinking the concepts of community-acquired and healthcare-associated pneumonia Lancet (Infection) 10 2010 279 287
92. R.G. Wunderink Community-acquired pneumonia versus healthcare-associated pneumonia. The returning pendulum Am J Respir Crit Care Med 188 8 2013 896 898
93. Y. Shindo, R. Ito, D. Kobayashi, M. Ando, M. Ichikawa, and A. Shiraki Risk factors for drug-resistant pathogens in community-acquired and healthcare-associated pneumonia Am J Respir Crit Care Med 188 8 2013 985 995
94. R.N. Jones, M.R. Jacobs, and H.S. Sader Evolving trends in Streptococcus pneumoniae resistance: implications for therapy of community-acquired bacterial pneumonia Int J Antimicrob Agents 36 2010 197 204
95. S.H. Kim, J.H. Song, D.R. Chung, V. Thamlikitkul, Y. Yang, and H. Wang Changing trend of antimicrobial resistance and serotypes in Streptococcus pneumoniae in Asian countries: an ANSORP study Antimicrob Agents Chemother 56 2012 1418 1426
96. European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network Antimicrobial resistance surveillance in Europe 2011 Available at http://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications/Publications/antimicrobial-resistance-surveillance-europe-2011.pdf
97. G.G. Zhanel, L. Palatnick, K.A. Nichol, T. Bellyou, D.E. Low, and D.J. Hoban Antimicrobial resistance in respiratory tract Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates: results of the Canadian Respiratory Organism Susceptibility Study, 1997-2002 Antimicrob Agents Chemother 47 2003 1867 1874
98. I. Morrissey, A. Colclough, and J. Northwood TARGETed surveillance: susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated from community-acquired respiratory tract infections in 2003 to fluoroquinolones and other agents Int J Antimicrob Agents 30 2007 345 351
99. D.C. Draghi, M.E. Jones, D.F. Sahm, and G.S. Tillotson Geographically-based evaluation of multidrug resistance trends among Streptococcus pneumoniae in the USA: findings of the FAST surveillance initiative (2003-2004) Int J Antimicrob Agents 28 2006 525 531
100. S.N. Patel, A. McGeer, R. Melano, G.J. Tyrrell, K. Green, and D.R. Pillai Susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones in Canada Antimicrob Agents Chemother 55 8 2011 3703 3708
101. US Food and Drug Association. Available at: http://www.fda.gov/OHRMS/DOCKETS/98fr/cd07129-n.pdf.
102. M.L. Levy, I. Le Jeaune, M.A. Woodhead, J.T. Macfarlaned, W.S. Lim British Thoracic Society Community Acquired Pneumonia in Adults Guideline Group Primary care summary of the British Thoracic Society Guidelines for the management of community acquired pneumonia in adults: 2009 update Prim Care Respir J 19 2010 21 27
103. F.W. Arnold, J.T. Summersgill, A. LaJoie, P. Peyrani, T.J. Marrie, and P. Rossi A worldwide perspective of atypical pathogens in community-acquired pneumonia Am J Respir Crit Care Med 175 2007 1086 1093
104. A. Tessmer, T. Welte, P. Martus, M. Schnoor, R. Marre, and N. Suttorp Impact of intravenous β-lactam/macrolide versus β-lactam monotherapy on mortality in hospitalised patients with community-acquired pneumonia J Antimicrob Chemother 63 2009 1025 1033
105. T.P. Lodise, A. Kwa, L. Cosler, R. Gupta, and R.P. Smith Comparison of beta-lactam and macrolide combination therapy versus fluoroquinolone monotherapy in hospitalized Veterans Affairs patients with community-acquired pneumonia Antimicrob Agents Chemother 51 2007 3977 3982
106. K.Z. Vardakas, Siempos II, A. Grammatikos, Z. Athanassa, I.P. Korbila, and M.E. Falagas Respiratory fluoroquinolones for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials CMAJ 179 2008 1269 1277
107. A. Torres, J.F. Muir, P. Corris, R. Kubin, I. Duprat-Lomon, and P.P. Sagnier Effectiveness of oral moxifloxacin in standard first-line therapy in community-acquired pneumonia Eur Respir J 21 2003 135 143
108. T. Welte, W. Petermann, D. Schurmann, T.T. Bauer, P. Reimnitz MOXIRAPID Study Group Treatment with sequential intravenous or oral moxifloxacin was associated with faster clinical improvement than was standard therapy for hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia who received initial parenteral therapy Clin Infect Dis 41 2005 1697 1705
109. R. Finch, D. Schurmann, O. Collins, R. Kubin, J. McGivern, and H. Bobbaers Randomized controlled trial of sequential intravenous (i.v.) and oral moxifloxacin compared with sequential i.v. and oral co-amoxiclav with or without clarithromycin in patients with community-acquired pneumonia requiring initial parenteral treatment Antimicrob Agents Chemother 46 2002 1746 1754
110. T.Y. Lin, S.M. Lin, H.C. Chen, C.J. Wang, Y.M. Wang, and M.L. Chang An open-label, randomized comparison of levofloxacin and amoxicillin/clavulanate plus clarithromycin for the treatment of hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia Chang Gung Med J 30 2007 321 332
111. O. Leroy, P. Saux, J.-P. Bedos, and E. Caulin Comparison of levofloxaicn and cefotaxime combined with ofloxacin for ICU patients with community-acquired pneumonia who do not require vasopressors Chest 128 2005 172 183
112. H. Portier, C. Brambilla, M. Garre, F. Paganin, P. Poubeau, and P. Zuck Moxifloxacin monotherapy compared to amoxicillin-clavulanate plus roxithromycin for nonsevere community-acquired pneumonia in adults with risk factors Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis 24 2005 367 376
113. A. Torres, J. Garau, P. Arvis, J. Carlet, S. Choudhri, and A. Kureishi Moxifloxacin monotherapy is effective in hospitalised patients with CAP: the MOTIV study - a randomized clinical trial Clin Infect Dis 46 2008 1499 1509
114. K. Skalsky, D. Yahav, A. Lador, N. Eliakim-Raz, L. Leibovici, and M. Paul Macrolides vs. quinolones for community-acquired pneumonia: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials Clin Microbiol Infect 19 2013 370 378
115. M. Shinkai, M.O. Henke, and B.K. Rubin Macrolide antibiotics as immunomodulatory medications: proposed mechanisms of action Pharmacol Ther 117 2008 393 405
116. A. Karlstrom, K.L. Boyd, B.K. English, and J.A. McCullers Treatment with protein synthesis inhibitors improves outcomes from secondary bacterial pneumonia following influenza J Infect Dis 199 2009 311 319
117. G.L. Drusano What are the properties that make an antibiotic acceptable for therapy of community-acquired pneumonia? J Antimicrob Chemother 66 Suppl. 3 2011 iii61 iii67
118. T. Swainston Harrison, and S.J. Keam Azithromycin extended release: a review of its use in the treatment of acute bacterial sinusitis and community-acquired pneumonia in the US Drugs 67 2007 773 792
119. P.D. Lister, and C.C. Sanders Pharmacodynamics of moxifloxacin, levofloxacin and sparfloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae J Antimicrob Chemother 47 2001 811 818
120. D. Breilh, J. Jougon, S. Djabarouti, J.B. Gordien, F. Xuereb, and J.F. Velly Diffusion of oral and intravenous 400 mg once-daily moxifloxacin into lung tissue at steady state J Chemother 15 2003 558 562
121. A. Anzueto, M.S. Niederman, J. Pearle, M.I. Restrepo, A. Heyder, and S.H. Choudhri Community-acquired pneumonia recovery in the elderly (CAPRIE): efficacy and safety of moxifloxacin therapy versus that of levofloxacin therapy Clin Infect Dis 42 2006 73 81
122. J. Morganroth, J.P. DiMarco, A. Anzueto, M.S. Niederman, and S. Choudhri A randomized trial comparing the cardiac rhythm safety of moxifloxacin vs levofloxacin in elderly patients hospitalised with community-acquired pneumonia Chest 128 2005 3398 3406
123. W.A. Ray, K.T. Murray, K. Hall, P.G. Arbogast, and C.M. Stein Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death N Engl J Med 366 2012 1881 1890
124. J.P. Hanrahan, P.W. Choo, W. Carlson, D. Greineder, G.A. Faich, and R. Platt Terfenadine-associated ventricular arrhythmias and QTc interval prolongation. A retrospective cohort comparison with other antihistamines among members of a health maintenance organization Ann Epidemiol 5 1995 201 209
125. M.W. Brandriss, W.S. Richardson, and S.S. Barold Erythromycin-induced QT prolongation and polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (torsades de pointes): case report and review Clin Infect Dis 18 1994 995 998
126. E. Rubinstein History of quinolones and their side effects Chemotherapy 47 Suppl. 3 2001 3 8
127. P. Jaillon, J. Morganroth, I. Brumpt, and G. Talbot Overview of electrocardiographic and cardiovascular safety data for sparfloxacin. Sparfloxacin Safety Group J Antimicrob Chemother 37 Suppl. A 1996 161 167
128. P.M. Tulkens, P. Arvis, and F. Kruesmann Moxifloxacin safety: an analysis of 14 years of clinical data Drugs R D 12 2012 71 100