Fear Extinction and Emotional Processing Theory

Associative Learning and Conditioning Theory: Human and Non-Human Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages

  Gillihan, Seth J ^a   Foa, Edna B ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Anxiety; Exposure; Extinction; Fear; PTSD

Indexed keywords

EID: 84921814069     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199735969.003.0017     Document Type: Chapter

References (94)

1. Alvarez, R. P., Johnson, L., & Grillon, C. (2007). Contextual-specificity of short-delay extinction in humans: Renewal of fear-potentiated startle in a virtual environment. Learning and Memory, 14, 247-253.
2. Baker, J. D., & Azorlosa, J. L. (1996). The NMDA antagonist MK-801 blocks the extinction of Pavlovian fear conditioning. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 618-620.
3. Barad, M., Gean, P-W., & Lutz, B. (2006). The role of the amygdala in the extinction of conditioned fear. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 322-328.
4. Barry, H., Etheredge, E. E., & Miller, N. E. (1965). Counterconditioning and extinction of fear fail to transfer from amobarbital to nondrug state. Psychopharmacologia (Berlin), 8, 150-156.
5. Baum, M. (1970). Extinction of avoidance responding through response prevention (flooding). Psychological Bulletin, 74, 276-284.
6. Blechert, J., Michael, T., Vriends, N., Magraf, J., & Wilhelm, F. H. (2007). Fear conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder: Evidence for delayed extinction of autonomic, experiential, and behavioural responses. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2019-2033.
7. Bouton, M. E., & Bolles, R. C. (1979). Contextual control of the extinction of conditioned fear. Learning and Motivation, 10, 445-466.
8. Bouton, M. E., Kenney, F. A., & Rosengard, C. (1990). State-dependent fear extinction with two benzodiazepine tranquilizers. Behavioral Neuroscience, 104, 44-55.
9. Bouton, M. E., Mineka, S., & Barlow, D. H. (2001). A modern learning theory perspective on the etiology of panic disorder. Psychological Review, 108, 4-32.
10. Bremner, J. D., Krystal, J. H., Southwick, S. M. & Charney, D. S. (1996). Noradrenergic mechanisms in stress and anxiety: II. Clinical studies. Synapse, 23, 39-51.
11. Breslau, N., Reboussin, B. A., Anthony, J. C., & Storr, C. L. (2005). The structure of posttraumatic stress disorder: Latent class analysis in 2 community samples. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1343-1351.
12. Burgos-Robles, A., Vidal-Gonzalez, I., Santini, E., & Quirk, G. J. (2007). Consolidation of fear extinction required NMDA-dependent bursting in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Neuron, 53, 871-880.
13. Cain, C. K., Blouin, A. M., & Barad, M. (2002). L-type voltage-gated calcium channels are required for extinction, but not for acquisition or expression, of conditional fear in mice. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 9113-9121.
14. Cain, C. K., Blouin, A. M., & Barad, M. (2003). Temporally massed CS presentations generate more fear extinction than spaced presentations. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 29, 323-333.
15. Cain, C. K., Blouin, A. M., & Barad, M. (2004). Adrenergic transmission facilitates extinction of conditional fear in mice. Learning and Memory, 11, 179-187.
16. Chhatwal, J. P., Davis, M., Maguschak, K. A., & Ressler, K. J. (2005). Enhancing cannabinoid neurotransmission augments the extinction of conditioned fear. Neuropsychopharmacology, 30, 516-524.
17. Chhatwal, J. P., Stanek-Rattiner, L., Davis, M., & Ressler, K. J. (2006). Amygdala BDNF signaling is required for consolidation but not encoding of extinction. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 870-872.
18. Coppens, E., Vansteenwegen, D., Baeyens, F., Vandenbulcke, M., Van Paesschen, W., & Eelen, P. (2006). Evaluative conditioning is intact after unilateral resection of the anterior temporal lobe in humans. Neuropsychologia, 44, 840-843.
19. Corcoran, K. A., & Maren, S. (2001). Hippocampal inactivation disrupts contextual retrieval of fear memory after extinction. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 1720-1726.
20. Craske, M. G., Kircanski, K., Zelikowsky, M., Mystkowski, J., Chowdhury, N., & Baker, A. (2008). Optimizing inhibitory learning during exposure therapy. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 46, 5-27.
21. Davey, G. C. (1992). Classical conditioning and the acquisition of human fears and phobias: A review and synthesis of the literature. Advances in Behaviour Research and Therapy, 14, 29-66.
22. Debiec, J., & LeDoux, J. E. (2004). Disruption of reconsolidation but not consolidation of auditory fear conditioning by noradrenergic blockade in the amygdala. Neuroscience, 129, 267-272.
23. De Houwer, J., Thomas, S., & Baeyens, F. (2001). Associative learning of likes and dislikes: A review of 25 years of research on human evaluative conditioning. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 853-869.
24. Dollard, J., & Miller, N. E. (1950). Personality and psychotherapy. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
25. Dunmore, E., Clark, D. M., & Ehlers, A. (1999). Cognitive factors involved in the onset and maintenance of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after physical or sexual assault. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 37, 809-829.
26. Falls, W. A., Miserendino, M. J., & Davis, M. (1992). Extinction of fear-potentiated startle: Blockade by infusion of an NMDA antagonist into the amygdala. Journal of Neuroscience, 12, 854-863.
27. Foa, E. B. (1979). Failure in treating obsessive-compulsives. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 17, 169-176.
28. Foa, E. B., Huppert, J. D., & Cahill, S. P. (2006). Emotional processing theory: An update. In B. O. Rothbaum (Ed.), The nature and treatment of pathological anxiety (pp. 3-24). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
29. Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1985). Treatment of anxiety disorders: Implications for psychopathology. In A. H. Tuma & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Anxiety and the anxiety disorders (pp. 421-452). Hillsdale, N J: Erlbaum.
30. Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1986). Emotional processing of fear: Exposure to corrective information. Psychological Bulletin, 99, 20-35.
31. Foa, E. B., & Kozak, M. J. (1997). Beyond the efficacy ceiling? Cognitive behavioral therapy in search of theory. Behavior Therapy, 28, 601-611.
32. Foa, E. B., & McNally, R. J. (1996). Mechanisms of change in exposure therapy. In M. Rapee (Ed.), Current controversies in the anxiety disorders (pp. 329-343). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
33. Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Massie, E. D., & Yarczower, M. (1995). The impact of fear activation and anger on the efficacy of exposure treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder. Behavior Therapy, 26, 487-499.
34. Foa, E. B., Zinbarg, R., & Rothbaum, B. O. (1992). Uncontrollability and unpredictability in post-traumatic stress disorder: An animal model. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 218-238.
35. Groves, P. M., & Lynch, G. S. (1972). Mechanisms of habituation in the brain stem. Psychological Review, 79, 237-244.
36. Hermans, D., Vansteenwegen, D., Crombez, G., Baeyens, F., & Eelen, P. (2002). Expectancy-learning and evaluative learning in human classical conditioning: Affective priming as an indirect and unobtrusive measure of conditioned stimulus valence. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 217-234.
37. Herry, C., Ciocchi, S., Senn, V., Demmou, L., Müller, C., & Lüthi, A. (2008). Switching on and off fear by distinct neuronal circuits. Nature, 454, 600-606.
38. Hugues, S., Deschaux, O., & Garcia, R. (2004). Postextinction infusion of a mitogenactivated protein kinase inhibitor into the medial prefrontal cortex impairs memory of the extinction of conditioned fear. Learning and Memory, 11, 540-543.
39. Jaycox, L. H., Foa, E. B., & Morral, A. R. (1998). Influence of emotional engagement and habituation on exposure therapy for PTSD. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 66, 185-192.
40. Kalisch, R., Korenfeld, E., Stephan, K. E., Weiskopf, N., Seymour, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2006). Context-dependent human extinction memory is mediated by a ventromedial prefrontal and hippocampal network. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 9503-9511.
41. Kim, J., Lee, S., Park, K., Hong, I., Song, B., Son, G.,...Choi, S. (2007). Amygdala depotentiation and fear extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104, 20955-20960.
42. Knight, D. C., Smith, C. N., Cheng, D. T., Stein, E. A., & Helmstetter, F. J. (2004). Amygdala and hippocampal activity during acquisition and extinction of human fear conditioning. Cognitive, Affective, and Behavioral Neuroscience, 4, 317-325.
43. Kozak, M. J., Foa, E. B., & Steketee, G. (1988). Process and outcome of exposure treatment with obsessive-compulsives: Psychophysiological indicators of emotional processing. Behavior Therapy, 19, 157-169.
44. LaBar, K. S., Gatenby, C., Gore, J. C., LeDoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear acquisition and extinction: A mixed-trial fMRI study. Neuron, 20, 937-945.
45. Lang, P. J. (1977). Imagery in therapy: An information processing analysis of fear. Behavior Therapy, 8, 862-886.
46. Lang, P. J. (1984). Cognition in emotion: Concept and action. In C. Izard, J. Kagan, & R. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotion, cognition and behavior (pp. 193-206). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
47. Lang, P. J., Melamed, B. G., & Hart, J. (1970). A psychophysiological analysis of fear modification using an automated desensitization procedure. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 76, 220-234.
48. Lebrón, K., Milad, M. R., & Quirk, G. J. (2004). Delayed recall of fear extinction in rats with lesions of ventral medial prefrontal cortex. Learning and Memory, 11, 544-548.
49. LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Emotion circuits in the brain. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 12, 155-184.
50. Lee, J. L. C., Milton, A. L., & Everitt, B. J. (2006). Reconsolidation and extinction of conditioned fear: Inhibition and potentiation. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 10051-10056.
51. Leung, H. T., & Westbrook, R. F. (2008). Spontaneous recovery of extinguished fear responses deepens their extinction: A role for error-correction mechanisms. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 34, 461-474.
52. Li, S. H., & Westbrook, R. F. (2008). Massed extinction trials produce better short-term but worse long-term loss of context conditioned fear responses than spaced trials. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 34, 336-351.
53. Likhtik, E., Popa, D., Apergis-Schoute, J., Fidacaro, G. A., & Paré, D. (2008). Amygdala intercalated neurons are required for expression of fear extinction. Nature, 454, 642-645.
54. Lin, H-C., Mao, S-C., & Gean, P-W. (2006). Effects of intra-amygdala infusion of CB1 receptor agnoists on the reconsolidation of fear-potentiated startle. Learning and Memory, 13, 316-321.
55. Lissek, S., Powers, A. S., McClure, E. B., Phelps, E. A., Woldehawariat, G., Grillon, C., & Pine, D. S. (2005). Classical fear conditioning in the anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 43, 1391-1424.
56. Mamiya, N., Fukushima, H., Suzuki, A., Matsuyama, Z., Homma, S., Frankland, P. W., & Kida, S. (2009). Brain region-specific gene expression activation required for reconsolidation and extinction of contextual fear memory. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 402-413.
57. Milad, M. R., Quinn, B. T., Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Fischl, B., & Rauch, S. L. (2005). Thickness of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in humans is correlated with extinction memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 102, 10706-10711.
58. Milad, M. R., & Quirk, G. J. (2002). Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction. Nature, 420, 70-74.
59. Milad, M. R., Wright, C. I., Orr, S. P., Pitman, R. K., Quirk, G. J., & Rauch, S. L. (2007). Recall of fear extinction in humans activates the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus in concert. Biological Psychiatry, 62, 446-454.
60. Moody, E. W., Sunsay, C., & Bouton, M. E. (2006). Priming and trial spacing in extinction: Effects on extinction performance, spontaneous recovery, and reinstatement in appetitive conditioning. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 809-829.
61. Morris, R. W., & Bouton, M. E. (2007). The effect of yohimbine on the extinction of conditioned fear: A role for context. Behavioral Neuroscience, 121, 501-514.
62. Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, 722-726.
63. Orr, S. P., Milad, M. R., Metzger, L. J., Lasko, N. B., Gilbertson, M. W., & Pitman, R. K. (2006). Effects of beta blockade, PTSD diagnosis, and explicit threat on the extinction and retention of an aversively conditioned response. Biological Psychiatry, 73, 262-271.
64. Overton, D. A. (1985). Contextual stimulus effects of drugs and internal states. In P. D. Balsam & A. Tomie (Eds.), Context and Learning (pp. 357-384). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
65. Pavlov, I. P. (1927). Conditioned reflexes: An investigation of the physiological activity of the cerebral cortex (G. V. Anrep, Trans.). London, England: Oxford University Press.
66. Peri, T., Ben-Shakhar, G., Orr, S. P., & Shalev, A. Y. (2000). Psychophysiologic assessment of aversive conditioning in posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 512-519.
67. Phelps, E. A. (2005). Emotion and cognition: Insights from studies of the human amygdala. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 27-53.
68. Phelps, E. A., Delgado, M. R., Nearing, K. I., & LeDoux, J. E. (2004). Extinction learning in humans: Role of the amygdala and vmPFC. Neuron, 43, 897-905.
69. Pitman, R. K., Orr, S. P., Altman, B., Longpre, R. E., Poiré, R. E., Macklin, M. L.,...Steketee, G. S. (1996). Emotional processing and outcome of imaginal flooding therapy in Vietnam veterans with chronic post-traumatic stress disorder. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 37, 409-418.
70. Powers, M. B., & Emmelkamp, P. M. G. (2008). Virtual reality exposure therapy for anxiety disorders: A meta-analysis. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 22, 561-569.
71. Quirk, G. J., Garcia, R., & González-Lima, F. (2006). Prefrontal mechanisms in extinction of conditioned fear. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 337-343.
72. Quirk, G. J., Russo, G. K., Barron, J. L., & Lebron, K. (2000). The role of ventromedial prefrontal cortex in the recovery of extinguished fear. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 6225-6231.
73. Rauch, S. A. M., Foa, E. B., Furr, J. M., & Filip, J. C. (2004). Imagery vividness and perceived anxious arousal in prolonged exposure treatment for PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 461-465.
74. Rauch, S. L., Shin, L. M., & Phelps, E. A. (2006). Neurocircuitry models of posttraumatic stress disorder and extinction: Human neuroimaging research-past, present, and future. Biological Psychiatry, 60, 376-382.
75. Rauch, S. L., Whalen, P. J., Shin, L. M., McInerney, S. C., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B.,... Pitman, R. K. (2000). Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder: A functional MRI study. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 769-776.
76. Rescorla, R. A. (2000). Extinction can be enhanced by a concurrent excitor. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 26, 251-260.
77. Rescorla, R. A. (2006). Deepened extinction from compound stimulus presentation. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 135-144.
78. Rescorla, R. A., & Durlach, P. J. (1987). The role of context in intertrial interval effects in autoshaping. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39B, 35-40.
79. Rescorla, R. A., & Heth, C. D. (1975). Reinstatement of fear to an extinguished conditioned stimulus. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 1, 88-96.
80. Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984-991.
81. Ressler, K. J., Rothbaum, B. O., Tannenbaum, L., Anderson, P., Graap, K., Zimand, E.,... Davis, M. (2004). Cognitive enhancers as adjuncts to psychotherapy: Use of Dcycloserine in phobic individuals to facilitate extinction of fear. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 1136-1144.
82. Riley, W. T., McCormick, M. G. F., Simon, E. M., Stack, K., Pushkin, Y., Overstreet, M. M., ...Magakian, C. (1995). Effects of alprazolam dose on the induction and habituation processes during behavioral panic induction treatment. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 9, 217-227.
83. Rothbaum, B. O. (2009). Using virtual reality to help our patients in the real world. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 209-211.
84. Rothbaum, B. O., & Davis, M. (2003). Applying learning principles to the treatment of posttrauma reactions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008, 112-121.
85. Rothbaum, B. O., Foa, E. B., Riggs, D. S., Murdock, T., & Walsh, W. (1992). A prospective examination of post-traumatic stress disorder in rape victims. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5, 455-475.
86. Sergerie, K., Chochol, C., & Armony, J. L. (2008). The role of the amygdala in emotional processing: A quantitative meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 811-830.
87. Shin, L. M., Orr, S. P., Carson, M. A., Rauch, S. L., Macklin, M. L., Lasko, N. B.,...Pitman, R. K. (2004). Regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex during traumatic imagery in male and female Vietnam veterans with PTSD. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61, 168-176.
88. Sotres-Bayon, F., Bush, D. E., & LeDoux, J. E. (2007). Acquisition of fear extinction requires activation of NR2B-containing NMDA receptors in the lateral amygdala. Neuropsychopharmacology, 32, 1929-1940.
89. Southwick, S. M., Bremner, J. D., Rasmusson, A., Morgan, C. A., Arnsten, A., & Charney, D. S. (1999). Role of norepinephrine in the pathophysiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1192-1204.
90. Stampfl, T. G., & Levis, D. J. (1967). Essentials of implosive therapy: A learning-theorybased psychodynamic behavioral therapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 72, 496-503.
91. Van Minnen, A., & Foa, E. B. (2006). The effect of imaginal exposure length on outcome of treatment for PTSD. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19, 427-438.
92. Vansteenwegen, D., Francken, G., Vervliet, B., De Clercq, A., & Eelen, P. (2006). Resistance to extinction in evaluative conditioning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Animal Behavior Processes, 32, 71-79.
93. Walker, D. L., Ressler, K. J., Lu, K-T., & Davis, M. (2002). Facilitation of conditioned fear extinction by systemic administration or intra-amygdala infusions of D-cycloserine as assessed with fear-potentiated startle in rats. Journal of Neuroscience, 22, 2343-2351.
94. Zysset, S., Huber, O., Ferstl, E., & von Cramnon, D. Y. (2002). The anterior frontomedian cortex and evaluative judgment: An fMRI study. Neuroimage, 15, 983-991.