The impact of triclosan on the spread of antibiotic resistance in the environment

Frontiers in Microbiology

Volumn 5, Issue DEC, 2014, Pages

  Carey, Daniel E ^a   McNamara, Patrick J ^a  

^a Marquette University   (United States)

Author keywords

Antibiotic resistance; Antimicrobial resistance; Biosolids; Triclosan; Wastewater

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CHLORAMPHENICOL; CIPROFLOXACIN; ENOYL ACYL CARRIER PROTEIN REDUCTASE (NADH); FABI; NALIDIXIC ACID; NORFLOXACIN; OFLOXACIN; TETRACYCLINE; TRICLOSAN; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG;

ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; BACTERIAL GENE; BIOFILM; BIOSOLID; CHEMICAL MODIFICATION; CROSS RESISTANCE; EFFUSION; ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT; GENE MUTATION; MEMBRANE PERMEABILITY; MEMBRANE RESISTANCE; MICROBIAL COMMUNITY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; NONHUMAN; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; WASTE WATER MANAGEMENT;

EID: 84920682017     PISSN: None     EISSN: 1664302X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00780     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. Alanis, A. J. (2005). Resistance to antibiotics: are we in the post-antibiotic era? Archives of Medical Research, 36(6), 697-705. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2005.06.009.
2. Anger, C. T., Sueper, C., Blumentritt, D. J., McNeill, K., Engstrom, D. R., & Arnold, W. a. (2013). Quantification of Triclosan, Chlorinated Triclosan Derivatives, and their Dioxin Photoproducts in Lacustrine Sediment Cores. Environmental science & technology. 47(4), 1833-1843. doi:10.1021/es3045289.
3. Ashbolt, N.J., Amézquita, A., Backhaus, T., Borriello, P., Brandt, K.K., Collignon, P., Coors, A., Finley, R., Gaze, W.H., Heberer, T., Lawrence, J.R., Larsson, D.G.J., McEwen, S.A., Ryan, J.J., Schönfeld, J., Silley, P., Snape, J.R., Van den Eede, C., & Topp, E. (2013) Human Health Risk Assessment (HHRA) for Environmental Development and Transfer of Antibiotic Resistance. Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (9): 993-1001.
4. Bailey, A. M., Paulsen, I. T., & Piddock, L. J. V. (2008). RamA confers multidrug resistance in Salmonella enterica via increased expression of acrB, which is inhibited by chlorpromazine. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 52(10), 3604-11. doi:10.1128/AAC.00661-08.
5. Baquero, F., Martínez, J.L., & Cantón, R. (2008). Antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in water environments. Current opinion in biotechnology, 19(3), 260-5. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2008.05.006.
6. Bedoux, G., Roig, B., Thomas, O., Dupont, V., & Le Bot, B. (2012). Occurrence and toxicity of antimicrobial triclosan and by-products in the environment. Environmental science and pollution research international, 19(4), 1044-65. doi:10.1007/s11356-011-0632-z
7. Benotti, M. J., Trenholm, R. A, Vanderford, B. J., Holady, J. C., Stanford, B. D., & Snyder, S. A. (2009). Pharmaceuticals and endocrine disrupting compounds in U.S. drinking water. Environmental science & technology, 43(3), 597-603.
8. Bergler, H., Fuchsbichler, S., Hogenauer, G., & Turnowsky, F. (1996). The enoyl-[acyl-carrier protein] reductase (FabI) of Escherichia coli, which catalyzes a key regulatory step in fatty acid biosynthesis, accepts NADH and NADPH as cofactors and is inhibited by palmitoyl-CoA. Eur. J. Biochem. 242, 689-694.
9. Bester, K. (2005). Fate of triclosan and triclosan-methyl in sewage treatment plants and surface waters. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 49(1), 9-17. doi:10.1007/s00244-004-0155-4.
10. Bhargava, H., & Leonard, P. (1996). Triclosan: applications and safety. American journal of infection control, 24(3), 209-218.
11. Birosová, L., & Mikulásová, M. (2009). Development of triclosan and antibiotic resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. Journal of medical microbiology, 58, 436-41. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.003657-0.
12. Blair, B. D., Crago, J. P., Hedman, C. J., Treguer, R. J. F., Magruder, C., Royer, L. S., & Klaper, R. D. (2013) Evaluation of a model for the removal of pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and hormones from wastewater. Science of the total environment, 444(1), 515-521.
13. Braoudaki, M., & Hilton, A. C. (2004). Low level of cross-resistance between triclosan and antibiotics in Escherichia coli K-12 and E. coli O55 compared to E. coli O157. FEMS microbiology letters, 235(2), 305-9. doi:10.1016/j.femsle.2004.04.049.
14. Brenwald, N., & Fraise, A. (2003). Triclosan resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). Journal of Hospital Infection, 55, 141-144. doi:10.1016/S0195-6701(03)00222-6.
15. Burch, T. R., Sadowsky, M. J., & Lapara, T. M. (2014). Fate of Antibiotic Resistance Genes and Class 1 Integrons in Soil Microcosms Following the Application of Treated Residual Municipal Wastewater Solids. Environmental science & technology. 48 (10), pp 5620-5627 doi:10.1021/es501098g
16. Buth, J. M., Steen, P. O., Sueper, C., Blumentritt, D., Vikesland, P. J., Arnold, W. a, & McNeill, K. (2010). Dioxin photoproducts of triclosan and its chlorinated derivatives in sediment cores. Environmental science & technology, 44(12), 4545-51. doi:10.1021/es1001105.
17. Butler, E., Whelan, M. J., Ritz, K., Sakrabani, R., & van Egmond, R. (2011). Effects of triclosan on soil microbial respiration. Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 30(2), 360-6. doi:10.1002/etc.405.
18. Calafat, A. M., Ye, X., Wong, L.Y., Reidy, J. A., & Needham, L. L. (2008). Urinary concentrations of triclosan in the U.S. population: 2003-2004. Environmental health perspectives, 116(3), 303-307. doi:10.1289/ehp.10768.
19. Center for Disease Contorl (CDC), U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. REPORT - Antibiotic resistance threats in the United States. (2013) (pp. 1-114).
20. Cha, J., & Cupples, A.M. (2009). Detection of the antimicrobials triclocarban and triclosan in agricultural soils following land application of municipal biosolids. Water Research, 43(9), 2522-30.
21. Chalew, T. E., & Halden, R. U. (2009). Environmental Exposure of Aquatic and Terrestrial Biota to Triclosan and Triclocarban. Journal - American Water Works Association, 45(1), 4-13. doi:10.1111/j.1752-1688.2008.00284.x
22. Champlin, F. R., Ellison, M. L., Bullard, J. W., & Conrad, R. S. (2005). Effect of outer membrane permeabilisation on intrinsic resistance to low triclosan levels in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 26(2), 159-164. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2005.04.020.
23. Chapman, J. S. (2003). Biocide resistance mechanisms. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 51(2), 133-138. doi:10.1016/S0964-8305(02)00097-5.
24. Chen, Y., Pi, B., Zhou, H., Yu, Y., & Li, L. (2009). Triclosan resistance in clinical isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii. Journal of medical microbiology, 58, 1086-91. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.008524-0.
25. Chuanchuen, R., Beinlich, K., Hoang, T. T., Becher, A., Karkhoff-Schweizer, R. R., & Schweizer, H. P. (2001). Cross-Resistance between Triclosan and Antibiotics in Pseudomonas aeruginosa Is Mediated by Multidrug Efflux Pumps: Exposure of a Susceptible Mutant Strain to Triclosan Selects nfxB Mutants Overexpressing MexCD OprJ. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 45(2), 428-432. doi:10.1128/AAC.45.2.428.
26. Chuanchuen, R., & Schweizer, H. P. (2012). Global transcriptional responses to triclosan exposure in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 40(2), 114-22. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.04.008.
27. Ciusa, M. L., Furi, L., Knight, D., Decorosi, F., Fondi, M., Raggi, C., Coelhof J. R., Aragones, L., Moce, L., Visa, P., Freitas, A. T., Baldassarri, L., Fani, R., Viti, C., Orefici, G., Martinez, J. L., Morrissey, I., Oggioni, M. R., & the BIOHYPO Consortium (2012). A novel resistance mechanism to triclosan that suggests horizontal gene transfer and demonstrates a potential selective pressure for reduced biocide susceptibility in clinical strains of Staphylococcus aureus. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 40(3), 210-20. doi:10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2012.04.021.
28. Condell, O., Sheridan, á., Power, K. A, Bonilla-Santiago, R., Sergeant, K., Renaut, J., Burgess, C., Fanning, S., & Nally, J. E. (2012). Comparative proteomic analysis of Salmonella tolerance to the biocide active agent triclosan. Journal of proteomics, 75(14), 4505-19. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2012.04.044.
29. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS) Drug Use Review, 2012. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/Drugs/DrugSafety/InformationbyDrugClass/UCM319435.pdf (accessed 8 October 2014)
30. Drury, B., Scott, J., Rosi-Marshall, E. J., & Kelly, J. J. (2013). Triclosan exposure increases triclosan resistance and influences taxonomic composition of benthic bacterial communities. Environmental science & technology, 47(15), 8923-30. doi:10.1021/es401919.
31. Fan, F., Yan, K., & Wallis, N. (2002). Defining and combating the mechanisms of triclosan resistance in clinical isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy. doi:10.1128/AAC.46.11.3343.
32. Fang, J.L., Stingley, R.L., B eland, F.A., Harrouk, W., Lumpkins, D.L., & Howard, P. (2010) Occurrence, Efficacy, Metabolism, and Toxicity of Triclosan. Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part C, 28,147-171. doi: 10.1080/10590501.2010.504978
33. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 2011 Summary Report On Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed for Use in Food-Producing Animals, 2014. http://www.fda.gov/downloads/ForIndustry/UserFees/AnimalDrugUserFeeActADUFA/U CM338170.pdf (accessed 8 October 2014)
34. Ghosh, S., Ramsden, S. J., & LaPara, T. M. (2009). The role of anaerobic digestion in controlling the release of tetracycline resistance genes and class 1 integrons from municipal wastewater treatment plants. Applied microbiology and biotechnology, 84(4), 791-6. doi:10.1007/s00253-009-2125-2.
35. Halden, R. U. (2014). On the Need and Speed of Regulating Triclosan and Triclocarban in the United States. Environmental science & technology. doi:10.1021/es500495p
36. Halden, R.U. & Paull, D. (2014). Co-occurrence of triclocarban and triclosan in U.S. water resources. Environmental Science & Technology, 39(6), 1420-6.
37. Heath, R. J., & Rock, C. O. (2000). A triclosan-resistant bacterial enzyme. Nature, 406(6792), 145-6. doi:10.1038/35018162.
38. Heath, R. J., Su, N., Murphy, C. K., & Rock, C. O. (2000). The enoyl-[acyl-carrier-protein] reductases FabI and FabL from Bacillus subtilis. The Journal of biological chemistry, 275(51), 40128-33. doi:10.1074/jbc. M005611200.
39. Heidler, J., & Halden, R. U. (2007). Mass balance assessment of triclosan removal during conventional sewage treatment. Chemosphere, 66(2), 362-9. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.04.066.
40. Hernández, A., Ruiz, F. M., Romero, A., & Martínez, J. L. (2011). The binding of triclosan to SmeT, the repressor of the multidrug efflux pump SmeDEF, induces antibiotic resistance in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. PLoS pathogens, 7(6), e1002103. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002103.
41. Holzem, R., Stapleton, H., Gunsch, C.K. (2014). Determining the ecological impacts of organic contaminants in biosolids using a high-throughput colorimetric denitrification assay: A case study with antimicrobial agents. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 1646-1655.
42. Hooper, D. C. (2005). Efflux Pumps and Nosocomial Antibiotic Resistance: A Primer for Hospital Epidemiologists. Healthcare Epidemiology, 40, 1811-1818.
43. Johnson, D. R., Czechowska, K., Chèvre, N., & van der Meer, J. R. (2009). Toxicity of triclosan, penconazole and metalaxyl on Caulobacter crescentus and a freshwater microbial community as assessed by flow cytometry. Environmental microbiology, 11(7), 1682-91. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.01893.x
44. Jones, R. D., Jampani, H. B., Newman, J. L., & Lee, A. S. (2000). Triclosan: A review of effectiveness and safety in health care settings. American Journal of Infection Control, 28(2), 184-196. doi:10.1067/mic.2000.102378.
45. Karatzas, K. a G., Webber, M. a, Jorgensen, F., Woodward, M. J., Piddock, L. J. V, & Humphrey, T. J. (2007). Prolonged treatment of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium with commercial disinfectants selects for multiple antibiotic resistance, increased efflux and reduced invasiveness. The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 60(5), 947-55. doi:10.1093/jac/dkm314.
46. Kern, W. V, Oethinger, M., Jellen-Ritter, A., & Levy, S. B. (2000). Non-Target Gene Mutations in the Development of Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli Non-Target Gene Mutations in the Development of Fluoroquinolone Resistance in Escherichia coli. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother, 44(4), 814-820. doi:10.1128/AAC.44.4.814-820.2000.Updated
47. Khachatourians, G. G. (1998). Agricultural use of antibiotics and the evolution and transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Canadian Medical Association journal, 159(9), 1129-36.
48. Kumar, K. S., Priya, S. M., Peck, A. M., & Sajwan, K. S. (2010). Mass loadings of triclosan and triclocarbon from four wastewater treatment plants to three rivers and landfill in Savannah, Georgia, USA. Archives of environmental contamination and toxicology, 58(2), 275-85. doi:10.1007/s00244-009-9383-y
49. Kümmerer, K. (2004). Resistance in the environment. The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 54(2), 311-20. doi:10.1093/jac/dkh325.
50. Landau, E., & Young, S. (2014). "Minnesota issues ban on antibacterial ingredient." CNN (online), http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/21/health/triclosan-ban-antibacterial/.
51. LaPara, T. M., Burch, T. R., McNamara, P. J., Tan, D. T., Yan, M., & Eichmiller, J. J. (2011). Tertiary-treated municipal wastewater is a significant point source of antibiotic resistance genes into Duluth-Superior Harbor. Environmental science & technology, 45(22), 9543-9. doi:10.1021/es202775r
52. Levy, S B. (2002). Active efflux, a common mechanism for biocide and antibiotic resistance. Journal of Applied Microbiology Symposium Supplement, (31), 65S-71S.
53. Levy, Stuart B, & Marshall, B. (2004). Antibacterial resistance worldwide: causes, challenges and responses. Nature medicine, 10, S122-9. doi:10.1038/nm1145.
54. Liu, B., Pop, M. (2009). ARDB - Antibiotic Resistance Genes Database. Nucleic Acids Research, 37, D443-7.
55. Lozano, N., Rice, C. P., Ramirez, M., & Torrents, A. (2013). Fate of Triclocarban, Triclosan and Methyltriclosan during wastewater and biosolids treatment processes. Water Research, 47(13), 4519-4527. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2013.05.015.
56. Lubarsky, H. V, Gerbersdorf, S. U., Hubas, C., Behrens, S., Ricciardi, F., & Paterson, D. M. (2012). Impairment of the bacterial biofilm stability by triclosan. PloS one, 7(4), e31183. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031183.
57. Ma, Y., Wilson, C., Novak, J. T., Riffat, R., Aynur, S., Murthy, S., & Pruden, A. (2011). Effect of various sludge digestion conditions on sulfonamide, macrolide, and tetracycline resistance genes and class I integrons. Environmental science & technology, 45(18), 7855-61. doi:10.1021/es200827t
58. Massengo-Tiassé, R P, & Cronan, J. E. (2009). Diversity in enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductases. Cellular and molecular life sciences, 66(9), 1507-17. doi:10.1007/s00018-009-8704-7.
59. Massengo-Tiassé, R Prisca, & Cronan, J. E. (2008). Vibrio cholerae FabV defines a new class of enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase. The Journal of biological chemistry, 283(3), 1308-16. doi:10.1074/jbc. M708171200.
60. Mavri, A., Kurin, M., & Smole, S. (2012). The Prevalence of Antibiotic and Biocide Resistance Among Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter jejuni from Different Sources. Food Technol. Biotechnol, 50(3), 371-376.
61. McAvoy, D. C., Schatowitz, B., Jacob, M., Hauk, A., Eckhoff, W.S. (2002). Environmental Chemistry Measurement of triclosan in wastewater treatment systems. Environ Toxicol Chem. 21(7), 1323-1329.
62. Mcbain, A. J., Bartolo, R. G., Catrenich, C. E., Charbonneau, D., Ledder, R. G., Price, B. B., Gilbert, P. (2003). Exposure of Sink Drain Microcosms to Triclosan: Population Dynamics and Antimicrobial Susceptibility. Applied and environmental microbiology, 69(9), 5433-5442. doi:10.1128/AEM.69.9.5433.
63. McClellan, K., & Halden, R. U. (2010). Pharmaceuticals and personal care products in archived U.S. biosolids from the 2001 EPA National Sewage Sludge Survey. Water research, 44(2), 658-68. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.12.032.
64. McDonnell, G, and a D Russell. (1999) Antiseptics and Disinfectants: Activity, Action, and Resistance. Clinical microbiology reviews 12(1): 147-79.
65. McMurry, L. M., Oethinger, M., & Levy, S. B. (1998a). Overexpression of marA, soxS, or acrAB produces resistance to triclosan in laboratory and clinical strains of Escherichia coli. FEMS microbiology letters, 166(2), 305-9.
66. McMurry, L. M., Oethinger, M., & Levy, S. B. (1998b). Triclosan targets lipid synthesis. Nature, 394, 531-532. doi:10.1038/28970.
67. McMurry, L. M., Mcdermott, P. F., Levy, S. B. (1999). Genetic Evidence that InhA of Mycobacterium smegmatis Is a Target for Triclosan. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother., 43(3), 711-13.
68. McNamara, P. J., & Krzmarzick, M. J. (2013). Triclosan enriches for Dehalococcoides-like Chloroflexi in anaerobic soil at environmentally relevant concentrations. FEMS microbiology letters, 344(1), 48-52. doi:10.1111/1574-6968.12153.
69. McNamara, P. J., Lapara, T. M., & Novak, P. J. (2014). The impacts of triclosan on anaerobic community structures, function, and antimicrobial resistance. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2014, 48 (13), 7393-7400. doi: 10.1021/es501388v
70. Middleton, J. H., & Salierno, J. D. (2013). Antibiotic resistance in triclosan tolerant fecal coliforms isolated from surface waters near wastewater treatment plant outflows (Morris County, NJ, USA). Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 88, 79-88. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2012.10.025.
71. Miller, T., & Heidler, J. (2008). Fate of triclosan and evidence for reductive dechlorination of triclocarban in estuarine sediments. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42(12), 4570-4576.
72. Mima, T., Joshi, S., Gomez-Escalada, M., & Schweizer, H. P. (2007). Identification and characterization of TriABC-OpmH, a triclosan efflux pump of Pseudomonas aeruginosa requiring two membrane fusion proteins. Journal of bacteriology, 189(21), 7600-9. doi:10.1128/JB.00850-07.
73. Munir, M., Wong, K., & Xagoraraki, I. (2010). Release of antibiotic resistant bacteria and genes in the effluent and biosolids of five wastewater utilities in Michigan. Water Research, 45(2), 681-693.
74. Nietch, C., & Quinlan, E. (2013). Effects of a chronic lower range of triclosan exposure on a stream mesocosm community. Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 32(12), 2874-2887.
75. Poole, K. (2002). Mechanisms of bacterial biocide and antibiotic resistance. Journal of applied microbiology symposium supplement, (31), 55S-64S.
76. Proia, L., Morin, S., Peipoch, M., Romaní, A. M., & Sabater, S. (2011). Resistance and recovery of river biofilms receiving short pulses of Triclosan and Diuron. The Science of the total environment, 409(17), 3129-37. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.05.013.
77. Pruden, A., Arabi, M., & Storteboom, H. N. (2012). Correlation Between Upstream Human Activities and Riverine Antibiotic Resistance Genes. Environmental science & technology, 46 (21), 11541-11549. doi:10.1021/es302657r
78. Pruden, A., Pei, R., Storteboom, H., & Carlson, K. H. (2006). Antibiotic resistance genes as emerging contaminants: studies in northern Colorado. Environmental science & technology, 40(23), 7445-50.
79. Pycke, B. F. G., Crabbé, A., Verstraete, W., & Leys, N. (2010a). Characterization of triclosan resistant mutants reveals multiple antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in Rhodospirillum rubrum S1H. Applied and environmental microbiology, 76(10), 3116-23. doi:10.1128/AEM.02757-09.
80. Pycke, B. F. G., Vanermen, G., Monsieur s, P., De Wever, H., Mergeay, M., Verstraete, W., & Leys, N. (2010b). Toxicogenomic response of Rhodospirillum rubrum S1H to the micropollutant triclosan. Applied and environmental microbiology, 76(11), 3503-13. doi:10.1128/AEM.01254-09.
81. Pycke, B. F. G., Geer, L. a, Dalloul, M., Abulafia, O., Jenck, A. M., & Halden, R. U. (2014). Human fetal exposure to triclosan and triclocarban in an urban population from Brooklyn, New York. Environmental science & technology, 48(15), 8831-8. doi:10.1021/es501100w
82. Rensch, U., Klein, G., & Kehrenberg, C. (2013). Analysis of triclosan-selected Salmonella enterica mutants of eight serovars revealed increased aminoglycoside susceptibility and reduced growth rates. PloS one, 8(10), e78310. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0078310.
83. Russell, A. D. (2000). Do biocides select for antibiotic resistance? The Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology, 52(2), 227-33.
84. Saleh, S., Haddadin, R. N. S., Baillie, S., & Collier, P. J. (2011). Triclosan - an update. Letters in applied microbiology, 52(2), 87-95. doi:10.1111/j.1472-765X.2010.02976.x
85. Sanchez, P., Moreno, E., & Martinez, J. L. (2005). The Biocide Triclosan Selects Stenotrophomonas maltophilia Mutants That Overproduce the SmeDEF Multidrug Efflux Pump. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 49(2), 781-783. doi:10.1128/AAC.49.2.781.
86. Schweizer, H. P. (2001). Triclosan: a widely used biocide and its link to antibiotics. FEMS microbiology letters, 202(1), 1-7.
87. Sheridan, A., Lenahan, M., Condell, O., Bonilla-Santiago, R., Sergeant, K., Renaut, J., Duffy, G., Fanning, S., Nally, J. E., Burgess, C. M. (2013). Proteomic and phenotypic analysis of triclosan tolerant verocytotoxigenic Escherichia coli O157:H19. Journal of proteomics, 80, 78-90. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2012.12.025.
88. Singer, H., Müller, S., Tixier, C., & Pillonel, L. (2002). Triclosan: occurrence and fate of a widely used biocide in the aquatic environment: field measurements in wastewater treatment plants, surface waters, and lake sediments. Environmental science & technology, 36(23), 4998-5004.
89. Skovgaard, S., Nielsen, L. N., Larsen, M. H., Skov, R. L., Ingmer, H., & Westh, H. (2013). Staphylococcus epidermidis isolated in 1965 are more susceptible to triclosan than current isolates. PloS one, 8(4), e62197. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062197.
90. Slater-Radosti, C., Aller, G.V., Greenwood, R., Nicholas, R., Keller, P.M., DeWolf Jr., W. E., Fan, F., Payne, D.J., & Jaworski, D.D. (2001). Biochemical and genetic characterization of the action of triclosan on Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 48, 1-6.
91. Son, A., Kennedy, I. M., Scow, K. M., & Hristova, K. R. (2010). Quantitative gene monitoring of microbial tetracycline resistance using magnetic luminescent nanoparticles. Journal of environmental monitoring, 12(6), 1362-7. doi:10.1039/c001974g
92. Stasinakis, A. S., Mamais, D., Thomaidis, N. S., Danika, E., Gatidou, G., & Lekkas, T. D. (2008). Inhibitory effect of triclosan and nonylphenol on respiration rates and ammonia removal in activated sludge systems. Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 70(2), 199-206. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2007.12.011.
93. Suller, M. T. E., & Russell, A. D. (2000). Triclosan and antibiotic resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Antimicrob Chemother, (46), 11-18.
94. Tkachenko, O., Shepard, J., Aris, V. M., Joy, A., Bello, A., Londono, I., Marku, J., Soteropoulus, P., Peteroy-Kelly, M. A. (2007). A triclosan-ciprofloxacin cross-resistant mutant strain of Staphylococcus aureus displays an alteration in the expression of several cell membrane structural and functional genes. Research in microbiology, 158(8-9), 651-8. doi:10.1016/j.resmic.2007.09.003.
95. United States Environmental Protection Agency, USEPA. (2009). Targeted National Sewage Sludge Survey Statistical Analysis Report, (April).
96. Venkatesan, A.K., Halden, R.U. (2014). Wastewater treatment plants as chemical observatories to forecast ecological and human health risks of manmade chemicals. Scientific Reports, 4 (3731), 1-11.
97. Viau, E., Bibby, K., Paez-Rubio, T., Peccia, J. (2011). Toward a concensus view on the infectious risks associated with land application of sewage sludge. Environ. Sci. & Technol. 45(13), 5459-69.
98. Villalaín, J., Mateo, C. R., Aranda, F. J., Shapiro, S., & Micol, V. (2001). Membranotropic effects of the antibacterial agent Triclosan. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics, 390(1), 128-136. doi:10.1006/abbi.2001.2356.
99. Webber, M. a, Randall, L. P., Cooles, S., Woodward, M. J., & Piddock, L. J. V. (2008). Triclosan resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 62(1), 83-91. doi:10.1093/jac/dkn137.
100. Welsch, T., & Gillock, E. (2011). Triclosan-resistant bacteria isolated from feedlot and residential soils. J Environ Sci Health A Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng. 46(4), 436-40. doi: 10.1080/10934529.2011.549407.
101. World Health Organization (WHO). Antimicrobial Resistance: Global Report on Surveillance. Geneva, 2014. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1 (accessed 15 September 2014)
102. Xia, K., Hundal, L. S., Kumar, K., Armbrust, K., Cox, A. E., & Granato, T. C. (2010). Triclocarban, triclosan, polybrominated diphenyl ethers, and 4-nonylphenol in biosolids and in soil receiving 33-year biosolids application. Environmental toxicology and chemistry, 29(3), 597-605. doi:10.1002/etc.66.
103. Yang, Y., Li, B., Zou, S., Fang, H. H. P., & Zhang, T. (2014). Fate of antibiotic resistance genes in sewage treatment plant revealed by metagenomic approach. Water research, 62C, 97-106. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2014.05.019.
104. Yazdankhah, S. P., Scheie, A. a, Høiby, E. A., Lunestad, B.-T., Heir, E., Fotland, T. Ø., Kruse, H. (2006). Triclosan and antimicrobial resistance in bacteria: an overview. Microbial drug resistance, 12(2), 83-90. doi:10.1089/mdr.2006.12.83.
105. Ying, G.-G., Yu, X.-Y., & Kookana, R. S. (2007). Biological degradation of triclocarban and triclosan in a soil under aerobic and anaerobic conditions and comparison with environmental fate modelling. Environmental pollution, 150(3), 300-5. doi:10.1016/j.envpol.2007.02.013.
106. Yu, B. J., Kim, J. A., Ju, H. M., Choi, S.-K., Hwang, S. J., Park, S., Kim, E., Pan, J.-G. (2012). Genome-wide enrichment screening reveals multiple targets and resistance genes for triclosan in Escherichia coli. Journal of microbiology, 50(5), 785-91. doi:10.1007/s12275-012-2439-0.
107. Yu, B. J., Kim, J. A., & Pan, J.-G. (2010). Signature gene expression profile of triclosan-resistant Escherichia coli. The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy, 65(6), 1171-7. doi:10.1093/jac/dkq114.
108. Zhang, T., Zhang, X.-X., & Ye, L. (2011). Plasmid metagenome reveals high levels of antibiotic resistance genes and mobile genetic elements in activated sludge. PloS one, 6(10), e26041. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0026041.
109. Zhu, L., Lin, J., Ma, J., Cronan, J. E., & Wang, H. (2010). Triclosan resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 is due to FabV, a triclosan-resistant enoyl-acyl carrier protein reductase. Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy, 54(2), 689-98. doi:10.1128/AAC.01152-09