Polyester-based (bio)degradable polymers as environmentally friendly materials for sustainable development

International Journal of Molecular Sciences

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 564-596

  Rydz, Joanna ^a,b   Sikorska, Wanda ^b   Kyulavska, Mariya ^a   Christova, Darinka ^a  

^a INSTITUTE OF POLYMERS   (Bulgaria)

^b CENTRE OF POLYMER AND CARBON MATERIALS   (Poland)

Author keywords

Microbial and synthetic polyester; Poly(ester amide); Polyamide; Polylactide; Renewable resource

Indexed keywords

ACID; ALKALI; COPOLYMER; HYDROXYACID; NYLON; POLY (3 HYDROXYBUTYRIC ACID); POLY (3 HYDROXYHEXANATE); POLY (3 HYDROXYVALERATE); POLYAMIDE; POLYHYDROXYALKANOIC ACID; POLYLACTIDE; POLYVINYL ACETATE; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; POLLUTANT; POLYESTER;

ARTICLE; BIOREMEDIATION; CUPRIAVIDUS NECATOR; DAILY LIFE ACTIVITY; DEGRADATION; DOWNSTREAM PROCESSING; ENZYMATIC DEGRADATION; FERMENTATION; FILM; FOSSIL; GEOBACILLUS; GREEN CHEMISTRY; HYDROLYSIS; MICROBIOLOGY; OXIDATION; PHOTOLYSIS; PLANT; RADIOLYSIS; SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT; BACTERIUM; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHEMISTRY; FUNGUS; METABOLISM; POLLUTANT;

BACTERIA; BIODEGRADATION, ENVIRONMENTAL; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FUNGI; HYDROLYSIS; MODELS, MOLECULAR; NYLONS; POLYESTERS;

EID: 84920070715     PISSN: 16616596     EISSN: 14220067     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijms16010564     Document Type: Article

References (203)

1. Kowalczuk, M. New Generation of the Polymeric Packaging Materials Susceptible to Organic Recycling. In Europe for Sustainable Plastics; eBrochure of Launch conference PLASTiCE: Bologna, Italy, 2011; pp. 29-31. Available online: http://www.plastice.org/pl/publications(accessed on 25 September 2014).
2. Sikorska, W.; Dacko, P.; Sobota, M.; Rydz, J.; Musioł, M.; Kowalczuk, M. Degradation study of polymers from renewable resources and their compositions in industrial composting pile. Macromol. Symp. 2008, 272, 132-135.
3. Musioł, M.T.; Rydz, J.; Sikorska, W.J.; Rychter, P.R.; Kowalczuk, M.M. A preliminary study of the degradation of selected commercial packaging materials in compost and aqueous environments. Pol. J. Chem. Technol. 2011, 13, 55-57.
4. Avérous, L. Polylactic acid: Synthesis, properties and applications. In Monomers, Polymers and Composites from Renewable Resources; Belgacem, M.N., Gandini, A., Eds.; Elsevier: Oxford, UK, 2008; pp. 433-450.
5. Vert, M. Aliphatic polyesters: Great degradable polymers that cannot do everything. Biomacromolecules 2005, 6, 538-546.
6. Rydz, J.; Zawidlak-Węgrzyńska, B.; Christova D. Degradable polymers. In Encyclopedia of Biomedical Polymers and Polymeric Biomaterials; Mishra, M.K., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Ratón, FL, USA, 2015.
7. Ikada, Y.; Tsuji, H. Biodegradable polyesters for medical and ecological applications. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 2000, 21, 117-132.
8. Azevedo, H.S.; Reis, R.L. Understanding the enzymatic degradation of biodegradable polymers and strategies to control their degradation rate. In Biodegradable Systems in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine; Reis, R.L., Roman, J.S., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Ratón, FL, USA, 2004; pp. 177-201.
9. Murthy, N.; Wilson, S.; Sy, J.C. Biodegradation of polymers. In Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference; Matyjaszewski, K., Möller, M., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 547-560.
10. McIntire, J.E. Polyester fibers. In Handbook of Fiber Chemistry, 2nd ed.; Lewin, M., Pearce, E.M., Eds.; CRC Press: New York, NY, USA, 1998; pp. 1-69.
11. Andersson, S.R.; Hakkarainen, M.; Inkinen, S.; Södergård, A.; Albertsson, A.-C. Leads to higher hydrolytic stability but more acidic hydrolysis product pattern. Biomacromolecules 2010, 11, 1067-1073.
12. Cam, D.; Suong-Hyu, H.; Ikada, Y. Degradation of high molecular weight poly(L-lactide) in alkaline medium. Biomaterials 1995, 16, 833-843.
13. Swift, G. Requirements for biodegradable water-soluble polymers. Polym. Degrad. Stable 1998, 59, 19-24.
14. Mueller, R.-J. Biological degradation of synthetic polyesters—Enzymes as potential catalysts for polyester recycling. Process. Biochem. 2006, 41, 2124-2128.
15. Walter, T.; Augusta, J.; Muller, R.-J.; Widdecke, H.; Klein, J. Enzymatic degradation of a model polyester by lipase from Rhizopus. delemar. Enzym. Microb. Tecnhnol. 1995, 17, 218-224.
16. Khemani, K.; Scholz, C. Introduction and overview of degradable and renewable polymers and materials. In Degradable Polymers and Materials: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed.; Khemani, K., Scholz, C., Eds.; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; p. 11.
17. Philip, S.; Keshavarz, T.; Roy, I. Polyhydroxyalkanoates: Biodegradable polymers with a range of applications. J. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2007, 82, 233-247.
18. Nair, L.S.; Laurencin, C.T. Biodegradable polymers as biomaterials. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2007, 32, 762-798.
19. Middleton, J.C.; Tipton, A.J. Synthetic biodegradable polymers as orthopedic devices. Biomaterials 2000, 21, 2335-2346.
20. Anderson, A.J.; Dawes, E.A. Occurrence, metabolism, metabolic role, and industrial uses of bacterial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Microbiol. Rev. 1990, 54, 50-72.
21. Gomez, J.G.C.; Méndez, B.S.; Nikel, P.I.; Pettinari, M.J.; Prieto, M.A.; Silva, L.F. Making green polymers even greener: Towards sustainable production of polyhydroxyalkanoates from agroindustrial by-products. In Advances in Applied Biotechnology; Petre, M., Ed.; InTech Open Access Publisher: 2012. Available online: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/31847 (accessed on 16 September 2014).
22. Steinbüchel, A.; Valentin, H.E.; Schonebaum, A.J. Application of recombinant gene technology for production of polyhydroxyalkanoic acids: Biosynthesis of poly(4-hydroxybutyric acid) homopolyester. J. Environ. Polym. Degrad. 1994, 2, 67-74.
23. Poirier, Y.; Somerville, C.; Schechtman, L.A.; Satkowski, M.M.; Noda, I. Synthesis of high-molecular-weight poly([R]-3-hydroxybutyrate) in transgenic Arabidopsis thaliana plant cells. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 1995, 17, 7-12.
24. Verlinden, R.A.J.; Hill, D.J.; Kenward, M.A.; Williams, C.D.; Radecka, I. Bacterial synthesis of biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2007, 102, 1437-1449.
25. Doi, Y. Microbial Polyesters; VCH Publishers: Weinheim, Germany, 1990.
26. Lenz, R.W.; Marchessault, R.H. Bacterial polyesters: Biosynthesis, biodegradable plastics and biotechnology. Biomacromolecules 2005, 6, 1-8.
27. Reusch, R.N.; Bryant, M.E.; Henry, D.N. Increased poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate concentrations in streptozotocin (STZ) diabetic rats. Acta Diabetol. 2003, 40, 91-94.
28. Dedkova, E.N.; Blatter, L.A. Role of β-hydroxybutyrate, its polymer poly-β-hydroxybutyrate and inorganic polyphosphate in mammalian health and disease. Front. Physiol. 2014, 5, 1-22.
29. Gao, X.; Chen, J.-C.; Wu, Q.; Chen, G.-Q. Polyhydroxyalkanoates as a source of chemicals, polymers, and biofuels, Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2011, 22, 768-774.
30. Kunasundari, B.; Sudesh, K. Isolation and recovery of microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates. Express Polym. Lett. 2011, 5, 620-634.
31. Modi, S.; Koelling, K.; Vodovotz, Y. Assessment of PHB with varying hydroxyvalerate content for potential packaging applications. Eur. Polym. J. 2011, 47, 179-186.
32. Shi, F.Y.; Gross, R.A.; Rutherford, D.R. Microbial Polyester Synthesis: Effects of poly(ethylene glycol) on product composition, repeat unit sequence, and end group structure. Macromolecules 1996, 29, 10-17.
33. Shi, F.Y.; Ashby, R.; Gross, R.A. Use of poly(ethylene glycol)s to regulate poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) molecular weight during Alcaligenes. eutrophus cultivations. Macromolecules 1996, 29, 7753-7758.
34. Jedliński, Z.; Kowalczuk, M.; Kurcok, P.; Adamus, G.; Matuszowicz, A.; Sikorska, W.; Gross, R.A.; Xu, J.; Lenz, R.W. Stereochemical control in the anionic-polymerization of beta-butyrolactone initiated with alkali-metal alkoxides. Macromolecules 1996, 29, 3773-3777.
35. Jedliński, Z.; Kurcok, P.; Lenz, R.W. First facile synthesis of biomimetic poly-(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate via regioselective anionic polymerization of (S)-β-butyrolactone. Macromolecules 1998, 31, 6718-6720.
36. Rydz, J.; Wolna-Stypka, K.; Adamus, G.; Janeczek, H.; Musioł, M.; Sobota, M.; Marcinkowski, A.; Krzan, A.; Kowalczuk, M. Forensic engineering of advanced polymeric materials. Part 1—Degradation studies of polylactide blends with atactic poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate] in paraffin. Chem. Biochem. Eng. Q. 2015, accepted.
37. Jedliński, Z.; Kowalczuk, M.; Głowkowski, W.; Grobelny, J.; Szwarc, M. Novel polymerization of β-butyrolactone initiated by potassium naphthalenide in the presence of a crown ether or a cryptand. Macromolecules 1991, 24, 349-352.
38. Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M.; Hennek, K.; Jedliński, Z. Anionic polymerization of beta-lactones initiated with alkali-metal alkoxides: Reinvestigation of the polymerization mechanism. Macromolecules 1992, 25, 2017-2020.
39. Kurcok, P.; Śmiga, M.; Jedliński, Z. β-Butyrolactone polymerization initiated with tetrabutylammonium carboxylates: A novel approach to biomimetic polyester synthesis. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem. 2002, 40, 2184-2189.
40. Juzwa, M.; Jedliński, Z. Novel synthesis of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). Macromolecules 2006, 39, 4627-4630.
41. Kawalec, M.; Sobota, M.; Scandola, M.; Kowalczuk, M.; Kurcok, P. A convenient route to PHB macromonomers via anionically controlled moderate-temperature degradation of PHB. J. Polym. Sci. Part A 2010, 48, 5490-5497.
42. Grassie, N.; Murray, E.J.; Holmes, P.A. The thermal degradation of poly(-(D)-β-hydroxybutyric acid): Part 1-Identification and quantitative analysis of products. Polym. Degrad. Stable 1984, 6, 47-61.
43. Kopinke, F.D.; Remmler, M.; Mackenzie, K. Thermal decomposition of biodegradable polyesters I: Poly(β-hydroxybutyric acid). Polym. Degrad. Stable 1996, 52, 25-38.
44. Nguyen, S.; Yu, G.; Marchessault, R.H. Thermal degradation of poly(3-hydroxyalkanoates): Preparation of well-defined oligomers. Biomacromolecules 2002, 3, 219-224.
45. Kim, J.K.; Doi, Y.; Abe, H. Effects of residual metal compounds and chain-end structure on thermal degradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyric acid). Polym. Degrad. Stable 2006, 91, 769-777.
46. Jedliński, Z.; Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M. Method of the Synthesis of Poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate). Polish Patent 199104, 16 April 2008.
47. Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M.; Kawalec, M.; Sobota, M.; Michalak, M. Method of Puryfying β-Butyrolactone, in Particular for the Synthesis of poly(3-Hydroxybutyrate) and Its Copolymers. Polish Patent Application, P393751, 27 January 2011.
48. Kawalec, M.; Adamus, G.; Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M.; Foltran, I.; Focarete, M.L.; Scandola, M. Carboxylate induced degradation of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate)s. Biomacromolecules 2007, 8, 1053-1058.
49. Arkin, Z.G.; Rydz, J.; Adamus, G.; Kowalczuk, M. Watersoluble L-alanine and related oligopeptide conjugates with poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutanoic acid. Oligomers] Synthesis and structural studies by means of electrospray ionization multistage mass spectrometry. J. Biomater. Sci. Polym. Ed. 2001, 12, 297-305.
50. Kowalczuk, M.; Adamus, G.; Jedliński, Z. Synthesis of new graft polymers via anionic grafting of β-butyrolactone on poly(methyl methacrylate). Macromolecules 1994, 27, 572-575.
51. Neugebauer, D.; Rydz, J.; Goebel, I.; Dacko, P.; Kowalczuk, M. Synthesis of graft copolymers containing biodegradable poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) chains. Macromolecules 2007, 40, 1767-1773.
52. Koseva, N.S.; Novakov, Ch. P.; Rydz, J.; Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M. Synthesis of aPHB-PEG brush co-polymers through ATRP in a macroinitiator-macromonomer feed system and their characterization. Des. Monomers Polym. 2010, 13, 579-595.
53. Kawalec, M.; Adamus, G.; Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M. Synthesis of Poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate-block-ethylene glycol-block-(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate. Macromol. Symp. 2007, 253, 59-64.
54. Liu, K.L.; Goh, S.H.; Li, J. Controlled synthesis and characterizations of amphiphilic poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate]-poly(ethylene glycol)-poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate] triblock copolymers. Polymer 2008, 49, 732-741.
55. Hazer, B. Macromonomeric initiators. In Polymeric Materials Encyclopedia; Salamone, J.C., Ed.; CRC Press: Boca Ratón, FL, USA, 1996; pp. 3911-3918.
56. Jedliński, Z.; Kowalczuk, M.; Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Rydz, J. Novel synthesis of functionalized poly(3-hydroxybutanoic acid) and its copolymers. Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 1999, 25, 247-253.
57. Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Montaudo, M.; Scandola, M.; Kowalczuk, M. Sequence distribution and fragmentation studies of bacterial copolyester macromolecules: Characterization of PHBV macroinitiator by electrospray ion-trap multistage mass spectrometry. Macromolecules 2000, 33, 5797-5802.
58. Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Kowalczuk, M.; Noda, I.; Satkowski, M.M. Electrospray ion-trap multistage mass spectrometry for characterisation of co-monomer compositional distribution of bacterial poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) at the molecular level. Rapid Commun. Mass Spectrom. 2003, 17, 2260-2266.
59. Adamus, G. Aliphatic polyesters for advanced technologies structural characterization of biopolyesters with the aid of mass spectrometry. Macromol. Symp. 2006, 239, 77-83.
60. Zagar, E.; Krzan, A.; Adamus, G.; Kowalczuk, M. Sequence Distribution in Microbial Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) Co-polyesters determined by NMR and MS. Biomacromolecules. 2006, 7, 2210-2216.
61. Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Janeczek, H.; Kwiecien, M.; Sobota, M.; Kowalczuk, M. Novel block copolymers of atactic PHB with natural PHA for cardiovascular engineering: Synthesis and characterization. Eur. Polym. J. 2012, 48, 621-631.
62. Kurcok, P.; Dubois, Ph.; Sikorska, W.; Jedliński, Z.; Jerome, R. Macromolecular engineering of lactones and lactides. 24. Controlled synthesis of (R,S)-β-butyrolactone-b-ε-caprolactone block copolymers by anionic and coordination polymerization. Macromolecules 1997, 30, 5591-5595.
63. Scandola, M.; Focarte, L.; Gazzano, M.; Matuszowicz, A.; Sikorska, W.; Adamus, G.; Kurcok, P.; Kowalczuk, M.; Jedliński, Z. Crystallinity-induced biodegradation of novel [(R,S)-β-butyrolactone]-b-pivalolactone copolymers. Macromolecules 1997, 30, 7743-7748.
64. Holmes, P.A. Applications of PHB—A microbially produced biodegradable thermoplastic. Phys. Technol. 1985, 14, 32-36.
65. VINNEX®—Enabling the Next Generation of Bioplastics; Wacker Chemie, A.G., Ed.; Wacker Chemie AG: München, Germany. Available online: http://www.wacker.com/cms/media/publications/downloads/7002_EN.pdf (accessed on 25 September 2014).
66. Metabolix, Inc. Metabolix. to Highlight High Performance Biopolymers for Packaging Applications at Interpack 2014. Available online: http://ir.metabolix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=845609 (accessed on 25 September 2014).
67. Metabolix, Inc. Reinvent Your Brand with Eco-Friendly Products. Available online: http://www.metabolix.com/brand-owner (accessed on 25 September 2014).
68. Website of Biomer: Krailling, Germany. Available online: http://www.biomer.de (accessed on 24 July 2014).
69. Chanprateep, S. Current trends in biodegradable polyhydroxyalkanoates. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 2010, 110, 621-632.
70. Chen, G.Q. A microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) based bio-and materials industry. Chem. Soc. Rev. 2009, 38, 2434-2446.
71. Marketsandmarkets.com. Polyhydroxyalkanoate. (PHA) Market, by Application (Packaging, Food Services, Bio-Medical, Agriculture) & Raw Material—Global Trends & Forecasts to 2018. Available online: http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/Market-Reports/pha-market-395.html (accessed on 14 March 2014).
72. Matavulj, M.; Sad N.; Molitoris, H.P. Biodegradation of Polyhydroxyalkanoate-Based Plastic (BIOPOL) Under Different Environmental Conditions; Hoppea, Denkschr. Regensb. Bot. Ges. Bresinsky-Festschrift: Regensburg, Germany, 2000; pp. 735-749.
73. Tsuji, H.; Suzuyoshi, K. Environmental degradation of biodegradable polyesters. 2. Poly(ε-caprolactone), poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] and poly(L-lactide) films in natural dynamic seawater. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2002, 75, 347-355.
74. Volova, T.G.; Boyandin, A.N.; Vasiliev, A.D.; Karpov, V.A. Biodegradation of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs) in tropical coastal waters and identification of PHA-degrading bacteria. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2010, 95, 2350-2359.
75. Akmal, D.; Azizan, M.N.; Majid, M.I.A. Biodegradation of microbial polyesters P(3HB) and P(3HB-co-3HV) under the tropical climate environment. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2003, 80, 513-518.
76. O’Brine, T.; Thompson, R.C. Degradation of plastic carrier bags in the marine environment. Mar. Pollut. Bull. 2010, 60, 2279-2283.
77. Bilck, A.; Grossmann, M.; Yamashita, F. Biodegradable mulch films for strawberry production. Polym. Test. 2010, 29, 471-476.
78. Rutkowska, M.; Krasowska, K.; Heimowska, A.; Kowalczuk, M. Degradation of the blends of natural and synthetic copolysters in different natural environment. Macromol. Symp. 2003, 197, 421-429.
79. Mohee, R.; Unmar, G.D.; Mudhoo, A.; Khadoo, P. Biodegradability of biodegradable/degradableplastic materials under aerobic and anaerobic conditions. Waste Manag. 2008, 28, 1624-1629.
80. Freier, T.; Kunze, C.; Nischan, C.; Kramer, S.; Sternberg, K.; Sass, M.; Hopt, U.T.; Schmitz, K.-P. In vitro and in vivo degradation studies for development of a biodegradable patch based on poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). Biomaterials 2002, 23, 2649-2657.
81. Scandola, M.; Focarete, L.; Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Kowalczuk, M.; Jedliński, Z.; Baranowska, I.; Świerczek, S.; Gnatowski, M. Polymer blends of natural poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3- hydroxyvalerate) and synthetic atactic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). Characterization and biodegradation studies. Macromolecules 1997, 30, 2568-2574.
82. Abe, H.; Matsubara, I.; Doi, Y. Physical properties and enzymic degradability of polymer blends of bacterial poly[(R)-3-hydroxybutyrate] and poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate] stereoisomers. Macromolecules 1995, 28, 844-853.
83. Focarete, M.L.; Ceccorulli, G.; Scandola, M.; Kowalczuk, M. Further Evidence of crystallinity-induced biodegradation of synthetic atactic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) by PHB-depolymerase A from Pseudomonas lemoignei. Blends of atactic Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) with crystalline polyesters. Macromolecules 1998, 31, 8485-8492.
84. Yu, L.; Dean, K.; Li, L. Polymer blends and composites from renewable resources. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2006, 31, 576-602.
85. Avella, M.; Martuscelli, E.; Raimo, M. Review: Properties of blends and composites based on poly(3-hydroxy)butyrate (PHB) and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) copolymers. J. Mater. Sci. 2000, 35, 523-545.
86. Zini, E.; Focarete, M.L.; Noda, I.; Scandola, M. Bio-composite of bacterial poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) reinforced with vegatable fibers. Compos. Sci. Technol. 2007, 67, 2085-2094.
87. Avella, M.; La Rota, G.; Martuscelli, E.; Raimo, M. Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) and wheat straw fibre composites: Thermal, mechanical properties and biodegradation behaviour. J. Mater. Sci. 2000, 35, 829-836.
88. Rutkowska, M.; Krasowska, K.; Heimowska, A.; Adamus, G.; Sobota, M.; Musioł, M.; Janeczek, H.; Sikorska, W.; Krzan, A.; Žagar, E.; et al. Environmental degradation of blends of atactic poly[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate] with natural PHBV in Baltic Sea water and compost with activated sludge. J. Polym. Environ. 2008, 16, 183-191.
89. Rychter, P.; Biczak, R.; Herman, B.; Smyłła, A.; Kurcok, P.; Adamus, G.; Kowalczuk, M. Environmental degradation of polyester blends containing atactic poly(3-hydroxybutyrate). Biodegradation in soil and ecotoxicological impact. Biomacromolecules 2006, 7, 3125-3131.
90. Gumel, A.M.; Annuar, M.S.M.; Chisti, Y. Recent advances in the production, recovery and applications of polyhydroxyalkanoates. J. Polym. Environ. 2013, 21, 580-605.
91. Piddubnyak, V.; Kurcok, P.; Matuszowicz, A.; G1owala, M.; Fiszer-Kierzkowska, A.; Jedliński, Z.; Juzwa, M.; Krawczyk, Z. Oligo-3-hydroxybutyrates as potential carriers for drug delivery. Biomaterials 2004, 25, 5271-5279.
92. Juzwa, M.; Rusin, A.; Zawidlak-Węgrzyńska, B.; Krawczyk, Z.; Obara, I.; Jedliński, Z. Oligo(3-hydroxybutanoate) conjugates with acetylsalicylic acid and their antitumour activity. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2008, 43, 1785-1790.
93. Zawidlak-Węgrzyńska, B.; Kawalec, M.; Bosek, I.; Łuczyk-Juzwa, M.; Adamus, G.; Rusin, A.; Filipczak, P.; Głowala-Kosińska, M.; Wolańska, K.; Krawczyk, Z.; et al. Synthesis and antiproliferative properties of ibuprofen-oligo(3-hydroxybutyrate) conjugates. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 2010, 45, 1833-1842.
94. Chen, G.; Wang, Y. Medical applications of biopolyesters polyhydroxyalkanoates. Chin. J. Polym. Sci. 2013, 31, 719-736.
95. Johnson, K.; Kleerebezem, R.; van Loosdrecht, M.C.M. Influence of ammonium on the accumulation of polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) in aerobic open mixed cultures. J. Biotechnol. 2010, 147, 73-79.
96. Zhang, X.J.; Luo, R.C.; Wang, Z.; Deng, Y.; Chen, G.Q. Application of (R)-3-hydroxyalkanoate methyl esters derived from microbial polyhydroxyalkanoates as novel biofuels. Biomacromolecules 2009, 10, 707-711.
97. Gruber, P.; O’Brien, M. Polylactides “NatureworksTM PLA”. In Biopolymers: Polyesters III—Applications and Commercial Products; Steinbüchel, A., Doi, Y., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2002; Volume 4, pp. 235-239.
98. Avérous, L.; Pollet, E. Biodegradable polymers. In Environmental Silicate Nano-Biocomposites; Avérous, L., Pollet, E., Eds.; Springer-Verlag: London, UK, 2012.
99. Huang, L.P.; Jin, B.; Lant, P.; Zhou, J. Biotechnological production of lactic acid integrated with potato wastewater treatment by Rhizopus. arrhizus. Chem. Technol. Biotechnol. 2003, 78, 899-906.
100. Yao, K.; Tang, C. Controlled polymerization of next-generation renewable monomers and beyond. Macromolecules 2013, 46, 1689-1712.
101. Vink, E.T.H.; Rábago, K.R.; Glassner, D.A.; Gruber, P.R. Applications of life cycle assessment to NatureWorks polylactide (PLA) production. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2003, 80, 403-419.
102. Nampoothiri, K.M.; Nair, N.R.; John, R.P. An overview of the recent developments in polylactide (PLA) research. Bioresour. Technol. 2010, 101, 8493-8501.
103. Okada, M. Chemical syntheses of biodegradable polymers. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2002, 27, 87-133.
104. Albertsson, A.C.; Varma, I.K. Aliphatic polyesters: Synthesis, properties and applications. Adv. Polym. Sci. 2002, 157, 1-40.
105. Kowalczuk, M.; Adamus, G.; Sikorska, W.; Rydz, J. Structural studies of biorelated polymers derived from natural PHA and their synthetic analogues with the aid of electrospray multistage mass spectrometry. Polym. Prepr. Am. Chem. Soc. Div. Polym. Chem. 2000, 41, 1626-1627.
106. Shuai, X.; Jedliński, Z.; Kowalczuk, M.; Rydz, J.; Tan, H. Enzymatic synthesis of polyesters from hydroxyl acids. Eur. Polym. J. 1999, 35, 721-725.
107. Cheng, Y.; Deng, S.; Chen, P.; Ruan, R. Polylactic acid (PLA) synthesis and modifications: A review. Front. Chem. China 2009, 4, 259-264.
108. Dobrzynski, P. Initiation of L-lactide polymerization carried out with zirconium (IV) acetylacetonate. J. Polym. Sci. Part A 2004, 42, 1886-1900.
109. Lasprilla, A.J.R.; Martinez, G.A.R.; Lunelli, B.H.; Jardini, A.L.; Filho, R.M. Poly-lactic acid synthesis for application in biomedical devices—A review. Biotechnol. Adv. 2012, 30, 321-328.
110. Dobrzynski, P.; Li, S.; Kasperczyk, J.; Bero, M.; Gasc, F.; Vert, M. Structure-property relationships of copolymers obtained by ring-opening polymerization of glycolide and ε-caprolactone. Part 1. Synthesis and characterization. Biomacromolecules. 2005, 6, 483-488.
111. Cabezas, L.I.; Mazarro, R.; Gracia, I.; de Lucas, A.; Rodríguez, J.F. Optimizing the bulk copolymerization of D,L-lactide and glycolide by response surface methodology. Express Polym. Lett. 2013, 7, 886-894.
112. Dobrzynski, P.; Kasperczyk, J.; Janeczek, H. Synthesis of biodegradable copolymers with the use of low toxic zirconium compounds. 1. Copolymerization of glycolide with L-Lactide initiated by Zr(Acac)4. Macromolecules 2001, 34, 5090-5099.
113. Pamula, E.; Dobrzynski, P.; Bero, M.; Paluszkiewicz, C. Hydrolytic degradation of porous scaffolds for tissue engineering from terpolymer of L-lactide, ε-caprolactone and glycolide. J. Mol. Struct. 2005, 744-747, 557-562.
114. Kasperczyk, J.; Li, S.; Jaworska, J.; Dobrzynski, P.; Vert, M. Degradation of copolymers obtained by ring-opening polymerization of glycolide and ε-caprolactone: A high resolution NMR and ESI-MS study. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2008, 93, 990-999.
115. D’Avila, C.; Erbetta, C.; Alves, R.J.; Resende, J.M.; de Souza Freitas, R.F.; de Sousa, R.G. Synthesis and characterization of poly(D,L-lactide-co-glycolide) copolymer. J. Biomater. Nanobiotechnol. 2012, 3, 208-225.
116. Hu, Y.; He, Y.; Wei, J.; Fan, Z.; Dobrzynski, P.; Kasperczyk, J.; Bero, M.; Li, S. Hydrolytic degradation of glycolide/L-lactide/ε-caprolactone terpolymers initiated by zirconium (IV) acetylacetonate. J. Appl. Pol. Sci. 2007, 103, 2451-2456.
117. Chłopek, J.; Morawska-Chochol, A.; Paluszkiewicz, C.; Jaworska, J.; Kasperczyk, J.; Dobrzynski, P. FTIR and NMR study of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and hydroxyapatite implant degradation under in vivo conditions. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2009, 94, 1479-1485.
118. Morawska-Chochol, A.; Jaworska, J.; Chlopek, J.; Kasperczyk, J.; Dobrzynski, P.; Paluszkiewicz, C.; Bajor, G. Degradation of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) and its composites with carbon fibres and hydroxyapatite in rabbit femoral bone. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2011, 96, 719-726.
119. Pamula, E.; Blazewicz, M.; Paluszkiewicz, C.; Dobrzynski, P. FTIR study of degradation products of aliphatic polyesters-carbon fibres composites. J. Mol. Struct. 2001, 596, 69-75.
120. Armentano, I.; Dottori, M.; Fortunati, E.; Mattioli, S.; Kenny, J.M. Biodegradable polymer matrix nanocomposites for tissue engineering: A review. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2010, 95, 2126-46.
121. Magon, A.; Pyda, M. Study of crystalline and amorphous phases of biodegradable poly(lactic acid) by advanced thermal analysis. Polymer 2009, 50, 3967-3973.
122. Calafel, M.I.; Remiro, P.M.; Cortázar, M.M.; Calahorra, M.E. Cold crystallization and multiple melting behavior of poly(L-lactide) in homogeneous and in multiphasic epoxy blends. Colloid Polym. Sci. 2010, 288, 283-296.
123. Kale, G.; Auras, R.; Singh, S.P. Degradation of commercial biodegradable packages under real composting and ambient exposure conditions. J. Polym. Environ. 2006, 14, 317-334.
124. Bergeret, A. Environmental-friendly biodegradable polymers and composites. In Integrated waste management, Kumar, S., Ed.; InTech Open Access Publisher: 2011; Volume 1. Available online: http://www.intechopen.com/books/integrated-waste-management-volume-i/environmental- friendly-biodegradable-polymers-and-composites (accessed on 17 September 2013).
125. Zhang, X.; Espiritu, M.; Bilyk, A.; Kurniawan, L. Morphological behaviour of poly(lactic acid) during hydrolytic degradation. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2008, 93, 1964-1970.
126. Auras, R.A.; Harte, B.; Selke, S.; Hernandez, R.J. Mechanical, physical, and barrier properties of poly(lactide) films. J. Plastic Film Sheet. 2003, 19, 123-135.
127. Ren, J. Processing of PLA. In Biodegradable Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Modification, Processing and Applications; Ren, J., Ed.; Springer-Verlag: London, UK, 2011; pp. 142-207.
128. Ramkumar, D.H.S.; Bhattacharya, M. Steady shear and dynamic properties of biodegradable polyesters. Polym. Eng. Sci. 1998, 38, 1426-1435.
129. Bastioli, C. Biodegradable materials-present situation and future perspectives. Macromol. Symp. 1998, 135, 193-204.
130. Höglund, A.; Odelius, K.; Albertsson, A.C. Crucial differences in the hydrolytic degradation between industrial polylactide and laboratory-scale poly(L-lactide). Appl. Mater. Interfaces 2012, 23, 2788-2793.
131. Cairncross, R.A.; Becker, J.G.; Ramaswamy, S.; O’Connor, R. Moisture sorption, transport, and hydrolytic degradation in polylactide. Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 2006, 131, 774-785.
132. Krasowska, K.; Brzeska, J.; Rutkowska, M.; Dacko, P.; Sobota, M.; Kowalczuk, M. The effect of poly(D,L-lactide) modification with poli[(R,S)-3-hydroxybutyrate] on the course of its degradation in natural environments. Polimery 2008, 53, 730-736.
133. Torres, A.; Li, S.; Roussos, S.; Vert, M. Poly(lactic acid) degradation in soil or under ncontrolled conditions. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1996, 62, 2295-2302.
134. Gartiser, S.; Wallrabenstein, M.; Stiene, G. Assessment of several test methods for the determination of the anaerobic biodegradability of polymers. J. Environ. Polymer Degrad. 1998, 6, 159-173.
135. Kale, G.; Auras, R.; Singh, S.P.; Narayan, R. Biodegradability of polylactide bottles in real and simulated composting conditions. Polym. Test. 2007, 26, 1049-1061.
136. Kolstad, J.J.; Vink, E.T.H.; de Wilde, B.; Debeer, L. Assessment of anaerobic degradation of Ingeo polylactides under accelerated landfill conditions. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2012, 97, 1131-1141.
137. Li, S.; Girard, A.; Garreau, H.; Vert, M. Enzymatic degradation of polylactide stereocopolymers with predominant D-lactyl contents. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2001, 71, 61-67.
138. Hakkarainen, M.; Karlsson, S.; Albertsson, A.C. Rapid (bio)degradation of polylactide by mixed culture of compost microorganisms-low molecular weight products and matrix changes. Polymer 2000, 41, 2331-2338.
139. Sikorska, W.; Richert, J.; Rydz, J.; Musioł, M.; Adamus, G.; Janeczek, H.; Kowalczuk, M. Degradability studies of poly(L-lactide) after multi-reprocessing experiments in extruder. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2012, 97, 1891-1897.
140. Rydz, J.; Adamus, G.; Wolna-Stypka, K.; Marcinkowski, A.; Misiurska-Marczak, M.; Kowalczuk, M.M. Degradation of polylactide in paraffin and selected protic media. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2013, 98, 316-324.
141. Rydz, J.; Wolna-Stypka, K.; Musioł, M.; Szeluga, U.; Janeczek, H.; Kowalczuk, M. Further evidence of polylactide degradation in paraffin and in selected protic media. A thermal analysis of eroded polylactide films. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2013, 98, 1450-1457.
142. Hakkarainen, M.; Albertsson, A.C.; Karlsson, S. Weight losses and molecular weight changes correlated with the evolution of hydroxyacids in simulated in vivo degradation of homo- and copolymers of PLA and PGA. Polym. Degrad. Stable 1996, 52, 283-291.
143. Siparsky, G.L.; Voorhees, K.J.; Miao, F. Hydrolysis of polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL) in aqueous acetonitrile solutions: Autocatalysis. J. Polym. Environ. 1988, 6, 31-41.
144. Lee, M.W.; Tan, H.T.; Chandrasekaran, M.; Ooi, C.P. Synthesis and characterisation of PLLA by melt polycondensation using binary catalyst system. SIMTech Tech. Rep. 2005, 6, 40-45.
145. Grizzi, I.; Garreau, H.; Li, S.; Vert, M. Hydrolytic degradation of devices based on poly(D,L-lactic acid) size-dependence. Biomaterials 1995, 16, 305-311.
146. Jaworska, J.; Kasperczyk, J.; Dobrzynski, P. Degradation process of bioresorbable copolyesters. Microstructure investigation by NMR and ESI-MS. Macromol. Symp. 2007, 253, 40-46.
147. Hakkarainen, M.; Finne-Wistrand, A. Polylactide. In Handbook of Engineering and Specialty Thermoplastics: Polyethers and Polyesters; Thomas, S., Visakh P.M., Eds.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2011; Volume 3, pp. 349-376.
148. Gruber, P.R. Commodity polymers from renewable resources: Polylactic acid. In Carbon Management: Implications for R & D in the Chemical Sciences and Technology; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA, 2001; pp. 166-184.
149. Ren, J. Application in the field of commodity and industry product. In Biodegradable Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Modification, Processing and Applications; Ren, J., Ed.; Tsinghua University Press: Beijing and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, China and Germany, 2010; pp. 208-239.
150. Hayes, D.; Dharmalingam, S.; Wadsworth, L.C.; Leonas, K.K.; Miles, C.; Inglis, D.A. Biodegradable agricultural mulches derived from biopolymers. In Degradable Polymers and Materials: Principles and Practice, 2nd ed.; Khemani, K., Scholz, C., Eds.; ACS Symposium Series; American Chemical Society: Washington, DC, USA, 2012; Volume 1114, pp. 201-223.
151. Rudnik, E.; Briassoulis, D. Degradation behaviour of poly(lactic acid) films and fibres in soil under Mediterranean field conditions and laboratory simulations testing. Ind. Crop. Prod. 2011, 33, 648-658.
152. Smock, D. Bioplastics. Producers Ramp up Supply. 2012. Available online: http://www.mypurchasingcenter.com/commodities/commodities-articles/bioplastics-manufacturers-ramp-up-production (accessed on 04 November 2014).
153. Bioplastics Magazine. New Market Research Projects Strong Growth for Lactic Acid. Available online: http://www.bioplasticsmagazine.com/en/news/meldungen/new-market-study-lactic-acid.php (accessed on 25 September 2014).
154. Lactic Acid Market Worth $3,577.5 Million and Polylactic Acid Market Worth $4,840.1 Million by 2019. Available online: http://www.marketsandmarkets.com/PressReleases/polylacticacid.asp (accessed on 25 September 2014).
155. Palmer, R.J. Polyamides, Plastics. In Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology, 3rd ed.; Mark, H., Ed.; Wiley: New York, NY, USA, 2003; Volume 3, pp. 618-642.
156. Page, I.B. Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials. Rapra Review Reports (Report 121); Smithers Rapra Technology: Shropshire, UK, 2000.
157. Estes, L.L.; Schweizer, M. Fibers, Polyamide fibers. In Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry; Wiley-VCH: New York, NY, USA, 2011, Volume 14, p. 451.
158. Rulkens, R.; Koning, C. Chemistry and Technology of Polyamides. In Polymer Science: A Comprehensive Reference; Matyjaszewski, K., Möller, M., Eds.; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2012; pp. 431-467.
159. Hashimoto, K. Ring-opening polymerization of lactams. Living anionic polymerization and its applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2000, 25, 1411-1462.
160. Hashimoto, K.; Sudo, E.; Sugimura, T.; Inagaki, Y. Synthesis of novel block copolymers containing polyamide4 segments and control of their biodegradability. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2004, 92, 3492-3498.
161. Kawasaki, N.; Nakayama, A.; Yamano, N.; Takeda, S.; Kawata, Y.; Yamamoto, N.; Aiba, S. Synthesis, thermal and mechanical properties and biodegradation of branched polyamides 4. Polymer 2005, 46, 987-993.
162. Nery, L.; Lefebvre, H.; Fradet, A. Polyamide-polyester multiblock copolymers by chain-coupling reactions of carboxy-terminated polymers with phenylene and pyridylene bisoxazolines. J. Polym. Sci. Part A: Polym. Chem. 2005, 43, 1331-1341.
163. Kyulavska, M.; Bryaskova, R.; Bozukova, D.; Mateva, R. Synthesis, structure and behavior of new polycaprolactam copolymers based on poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(propylene oxide)poly(ethylene oxide) macroactivators derived from Pluronic block copolymers. J. Polym. Res. 2014, 21, 471-485.
164. Prasad, V.S.; Hussain, S.A.; Pandurangadu, V.; PalaniKumar, K. Modeling and Analysis of Spur Gear for Sugarcane Juice Machine under Static Load Condition by Using FEA. Int. J. Mod. Eng. Res. 2012, 2, 2862-2866.
165. Forman, C. High.-Performance Films; CRC Press: Boca Ratón, FL, USA, 1996; p. 336.
166. McCoy, M. Slowly changing how nylon is made. Chem. Eng. News 2000, 78, 32-34.
167. Hoelderich, W.F.; Dahlhoff, G. Developing Technolgy: The “greening” of nylon. The precursor to nylon 6, ε-caprolactam, is manufactured with toxic and corrosive chemicals and produces tons of byproducts. Academic research suggests another approach based on heterogeneous catalysis. Chem. Inn. 2001, 31, 29-40.
168. Nylon 66 Market—Global Industry Analysis, Size, Share, Growth, Trends and Forecast, 2013-2019. Available online: http://www.transparencymarketresearch.com/nylon-66-market.html (accessed on 5 November 2014).
169. Advantages of Welded Nylon for Powertrain Applications: Linear Vibration, Orbital Vibration and Hot Plate Welding Technologies. BASF Corporation. Available online: http://www2.basf.us//PLASTICSWEB/displayanyfile?id=0901a5e18000487b (accessed on 5 November 2014).
170. Brehmer, B. Polyamides from biomass derived monomers. In Bio-Based Plastics: Materials and Applications; Kabasci, S., Ed.; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, UK, 2013; pp. 275-293.
171. Kuciel, S.; Kuzniar, P.; Liber-Knec, A. Polyamides from renewable sources as matricies of short fiber reinforced biocomposites. Polimery 2012, 57, 627-634.
172. Thielen, M. Basics of bio-polyamaides. Bioplastics Mag. 2010, 5, 50-53.
173. Fonseca, A.C.; Gil, M.H.; Simoes, P.N. Biodegradable poly(ester amide)s—A remarkable opportunity for the biomedical area: Review on the synthesis, characterization and applications. Prog. Polym. Sci. 2014, 39, 1291-1311.
174. Rodriguez-Galan, A.; Franco, L.; Puiggali, J. Degradable poly(esteramide)s for biomedical applications. Polymers 2010, 3, 65-99.
175. Herzog, B.; Kohan, M.I.; Mestemacher, S.A.; Pagilagan, R.U.; Redmond, K. Polyamides. In Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2013; Volume 28, p. 537.
176. Albertsson, A.-C.; Karlsson, S. Biodegradable polymers. In Comprehensive Polymer Science; Allen, G., Bevington, J.C., Eds.; Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK, 1992; pp. 285-297.
177. Williams, D.F. Polymer degradation in biological environments. In Comprehensive Polymer Science; Allen, G., Bevington, J.C., Eds.; Pergamon Press: Oxford, UK, 1989; Volume 6, pp. 607-719.
178. Negoro, S. Biodegradation of nylon and other synthetic polyamides. In Biopolymers Online; Matsumura, S., Steinbüchel, A., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2005; Volume 9, pp. 395-415.
179. Alexander, M. Biodegradation and Bioremediation; Academic Press: San Diego, CA, USA, 1999; pp. 393-407.
180. Morales-Gámez, L.; Soto, D.; Franco, L.; Puiggalí, J. Brill transition and melt crystallization of nylon 56: An odd-even polyamide with two hydrogen-bonding directions. Polymer 2010, 51, 5788-5798.
181. Negoro, S. Biodegradation of nylon oligomers. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2000, 54, 461-466.
182. Deguchi, T.; Kakezawa, M.; Nishida, T. Nylon biodegradation by lignin degrading fungi. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1997, 63, 329-331.
183. Shimao, M. Biodegradation of plastics. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2001, 12, 242-247.
184. Friedrich, J.; Zalar, P.; Mohorcic, M.; Klun, U.; Krzan, A. Ability of fungi to degrade synthetic polymer nylon-6. Chemosphere 2007, 67, 2089-2095.
185. Andreoni, V.; Baggi, G.; Manfrin, P. Bacterial degradation of 6-aminocaproic acid polyamides (nylon 6) of low molecular weight. Int. Biodeter. Biodegr. 1993, 31, 41-53.
186. Yamano, N.; Nakayama, A.; Kawasaki, N.; Yamamoto, N.; Aiba, S. Mechanism and characterization of polyamides 4 degradation by Pseudomonas sp. J. Polym. Environ. 2008, 16, 141-146.
187. Yamano, N.; Kawasaki, N.; Oshima, M.; Nakayama, A. Polyamide 4 with long-chain fatty acid groups—Suppressing the biodegradability of biodegradable polymers. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2014, 108, 116-122.
188. Hashimoto, K.; Hamano, T.; Okada, M. Degradation of several polyamides in soils. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 1994, 54, 1579-1583.
189. Hashimoto, K.; Sudo, E.; Ohta, K.; Sugimura, T.; Yamada, H.; Aoki, T. Biodegradation of nylon4 and its blends with nylon6. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2002, 86, 2307-2311.
190. Tachibana, K.; Hashimoto, K.; Yoshikawa, M.; Okawa, H. Isolation and characterization of microorganisms degrading nylon 4 in the composted soil. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2010, 95, 912-917.
191. Tachibana, K.; Urano, Y.; Numata, K. Biodegradability of nylon 4 film in a marine environment. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2013, 98, 1847-1851.
192. Eriksson, C.; Burton, H. Origins and biological accumulation of small plastic particles in fur seals from Macquarie Island. Ambio 2003, 32, 380-384.
193. Deguchi, T.; Kitaoka, Y.; Kakezawa, M.; Nishida, T. Purification and characterization of a nylon-degrading enzyme. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64, 1366-1371.
194. Tomita, K.; Ikeda, N.; Uedo, A. Isolation and characterization of a thermophilic bacterium, Geobacillus thermocatenulatus, degrading nylon 12 and nylon 66. Biotechnol. Lett. 2003, 25, 1743-1746.
195. Tomita, K.; Hayashi, N.; Ikeda, N.; Kikuchi, Y. Isolation of a thermophilic bacterium degrading some nylons. Polym. Degrad. Stable 2003, 81, 511-514.
196. Oppermann, F.B.; Pickartz, S.; Steinbüchel, A. Biodegradation of polyamides. Polym. Degrad. Stable 1998, 59, 337-344.
197. Mohanty, A.K.; Misra, M.; Hinrichsen, G. Biofibres, biodegradable polymers and biocomposites: An overview. Macromol. Mater. Eng. 2000, 276-277, 1-24.
198. Lips, P.; Dijkstra, P.J. Biodegradable Polyesteramides. In Biodegradable Polymers for Industrial Applications; Smith, R., Ed.; Woodhead Publishing Limited: Cambridge, UK, 2005, pp. 107-139.
199. Okada, M.; Yamada, M.; Yokoe, M.; Aoi, K. Biodegradable polymers based on renewable resources. V. Synthesis and biodegradation behavior of poly(ester amide)s composed of 1,4:3,6-dianhydro-D-glucitol, α-amino acid, and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid units. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2001, 81, 2721-2734.
200. Slater, S.; Glassner, D.; Vink, E.; Gerngross, T. Evaluating the environmental impact of biopolymers. In Biopolymers Online; Doi, Y., Steinbüchel, A., Eds.; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2005; Volume 10, pp. 473-492.
201. Papageorgiou, A.C.; Hermawan, S.; Singh, C.B.; Jendrossek, D. Structural basis of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) hydrolysis by PhaZ7 depolymerase from Paucimonas. lemoignei. J. Mol. Biol. 2008, 382, 1184-1194.
202. Fritz, J.; Link, U.; Braun, R. Environmental impacts of biobased/biodegradable packaging. Starch 2001, 53, 105-109.
203. Eubeler, J.P.; Bernhard, M.; Zok, S.; Knepper, T.P. Environmental biodegradation of synthetic polymers I. Test methodologies and procedures. Trend. Anal. Chem. 2009, 28, 1057-1072.