A typical Parkinsonism diagnosis and treatment

Neurologic Clinics

Volumn 33, Issue 1, 2015, Pages 39-56

  Stamelou, Maria ^a,b,c   Bhatia, Kailash P ^c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS   (Greece)

^b PHILIPPS UNIVERSITY MARBURG   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Atypical parkinsonism; Corticobasal degeneration; Diagnosis; Multiple system atrophy; Progressive supranuclear palsy

Indexed keywords

AMANTADINE; BOTULINUM TOXIN; LEVODOPA; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TIDEGLUSIB;

ARTICLE; ATYPICAL PARKINSONISM; BLADDER DISEASE; BRAIN CORTEX ATROPHY; CLINICAL EXAMINATION; CLINICAL FEATURE; CORTICOBASAL DEGENERATION; DEMENTIA; DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS; EYE MOVEMENT; HUMAN; NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PARKINSONISM; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PERRY SYNDROME; PHENOTYPE; PROGRESSIVE SUPRANUCLEAR PALSY; SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY; SHY DRAGER SYNDROME; TREMOR; SUPRANUCLEAR PALSY, PROGRESSIVE;

DIAGNOSIS, DIFFERENTIAL; HUMANS; SUPRANUCLEAR PALSY, PROGRESSIVE;

EID: 84918557699     PISSN: 07338619     EISSN: 15579875     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ncl.2014.09.012     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Gibb WR, Lees AJ. The significance of the Lewy body in the diagnosis of idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 1989;15:27-44.
2. Stamelou M, Quinn NP, Bhatia KP. "Atypical" atypical parkinsonism: new genetic conditions presenting with features of progressive supranuclear palsy, corticobasaldegeneration, or multiple system atrophy-a diagnostic guide. Mov Disord 2013;28:1184-99.
3. Josephs KA, Petersen RC, Knopman DS, et al. Clinicopathologic analysis of frontotemporal and corticobasal degenerations and PSP. Neurology 2006;66: 41-8.
4. Josephs KA, Whitwell JL, Boeve BF, et al. Anatomical differences between CBScorticobasal degeneration and CBS-Alzheimer's disease. Mov Disord 2010;25: 1246-52.
5. Nath U, Ben-Shlomo Y, Thomson RG, et al. Clinical features and natural history of progressive supranuclear palsy: a clinical cohort study. Neurology 2003;60: 910-6.
6. Kertesz A, McMonagle P. Behavior and cognition in corticobasal degeneration and progressive supranuclear palsy. J Neurol Sci 2010;289:138-43.
7. Litvan I, Mangone CA, McKee A, et al. Natural history of progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome) and clinical predictors of survival: a clinicopathological study. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1996;60:615-20.
8. Ling H, O'Sullivan SS, Holton JL, et al. Does corticobasal degeneration exist? A clinicopathological re-evaluation. Brain 2010;133:2045-57.
9. Williams DR, de Silva R, Paviour DC, et al. Characteristics of two distinct clinical phenotypes in pathologically proven progressive supranuclear palsy: Richardson's syndrome and PSP-parkinsonism. Brain 2005;128:1247-58.
10. Williams DR, Lees AJ. Progressive supranuclear palsy: clinicopathological concepts and diagnostic challenges. Lancet Neurol 2009;8:270-9.
11. Stamelou M, Alonso-Canovas A, Bhatia KP. Dystonia in corticobasal degeneration: a review of the literature on 404 pathologically proven cases. Mov Disord 2012;27:696-702.
12. Armstrong MJ, Litvan I, Lang AE, et al. Criteria for the diagnosis of corticobasal degeneration. Neurology 2013;80:496-503.
13. Morris HR, Osaki Y, Holton J, et al. Tau exon 10 116 mutation FTDP-17 presenting clinically as sporadic young onset PSP. Neurology 2003;61:102-4.
14. Boeve BF, Hutton M. Refining frontotemporal dementia with parkinsonism linked to chromosome 17: introducing FTDP-17 (MAPT) and FTDP-17 (PGRN). Arch Neurol 2008;65:460-4.
15. Hoglinger GU, Melhem NM, Dickson DW, et al. Identification of common variants influencing risk of the tauopathy progressive supranuclear palsy. Nat Genet 2011;43:699-705.
16. Stamelou M, Pilatus U, Reuss A, et al. In vivo evidence for cerebral depletion in high-energy phosphates in progressive supranuclear palsy. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2009;29:861-70.
17. Litvan I, Campbell G, Mangone CA, et al. Which clinical features differentiate progressive supranuclear palsy (Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome) from related disorders? A clinicopathological study. Brain 1997;120(Pt 1):65-74.
18. Osaki Y, Ben-Shlomo Y, Lees AJ, et al. Accuracy of clinical diagnosis of progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord 2004;19:181-9.
19. Marx S, Respondek G, Stamelou M, et al. Validation of mobile eye-tracking as novel and efficient means for differentiating progressive supranuclear palsy from Parkinson's disease. Front Behav Neurosci 2012;6:88.
20. Dubois B, Slachevsky A, Litvan I, et al. The FAB: a Frontal Assessment Battery at bedside. Neurology 2000;55:1621-6.
21. Litvan I. Cognitive disturbances in progressive supranuclear palsy. J Neural Transm Suppl 1994;42:69-78.
22. Paviour DC, Winterburn D, Simmonds S, et al. Can the frontal assessment battery (FAB) differentiate bradykinetic rigid syndromes? Relation of the FAB to formal neuropsychological testing. Neurocase 2005;11:274-82.
23. Respondek G, Roeber S, Kretzschmar H, et al. Accuracy of the National Institute for Neurological Disorders and Stroke/Society for Progressive Supranuclear Palsy and Neuroprotection and Natural History in Parkinson Plus Syndromes Criteria for the Diagnosis of Progressive Supranuclear Palsy. Mov Disord 2013;28(4):504-9.
24. Stamelou M, Knake S, Oertel WH, et al. Magnetic resonance imaging in progressive supranuclear palsy. J Neurol 2011;258:549-58.
25. Longoni G, Agosta F, Kostic VS, et al. MRI measurements of brainstem structures in patients with Richardson's syndrome, progressive supranuclear palsyparkinsonism, and Parkinson's disease. Mov Disord 2011;26:247-55.
26. Wu LJ, Sitburana O, Davidson A, et al. Applause sign in parkinsonian disorders and Huntington's disease. Mov Disord 2008;23:2307-11.
27. Massey LA, Micallef C, Paviour DC, et al. Conventional magnetic resonance imaging in confirmed progressive supranuclear palsy and multiple system atrophy.Mov Disord 2012;27:1754-62.
28. Orimo S, Suzuki M, Inaba A, et al. 123I-MIBG myocardial scintigraphy for differentiating Parkinson's disease from other neurodegenerative parkinsonism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2012;18:494-500.
29. Vlaar AM, de Nijs T, Kessels AG, et al. Diagnostic value of 123I-ioflupane and 123I-iodobenzamide SPECT scans in 248 patients with parkinsonian syndromes. Eur Neurol 2008;59:258-66.
30. Mollenhauer B, Locascio JJ, Schulz-Schaeffer W, et al. Alpha-Synuclein and tau concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid of patients presenting with parkinsonism: a cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2011;10:230-40.
31. Stamelou M, Hoeglinger GU. Atypical parkinsonism: an update. Curr Opin Neurol 2013;26:401-5.
32. Boxer AL, Lang AE, Grossman M, et al. Davunetide in patients with progressive supranuclear palsy: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase 2/3 trial. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:676-85.
33. Dickson DW, Ahmed Z, Algom AA, et al. Neuropathology of variants of progressive supranuclear palsy. Curr Opin Neurol 2010;23:394-400.
34. Stamelou M, de Silva R, Arias-Carrion O, et al. Rational therapeutic approaches to progressive supranuclear palsy. Brain 2010;133:1578-90.
35. Stamelou M, Reuss A, Pilatus U, et al. Short-term effects of coenzyme Q10 in progressive supranuclear palsy: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Mov Disord 2008;23:942-9.
36. Hoglinger GU, Huppertz HJ, Wagenpfeil S, et al. Tideglusib reduces progression of brain atrophy in progressive supranuclear palsy in a randomized trial. Mov Disord 2014;29:479-87.
37. Tolosa E, Litvan I, Hoglinger GU, et al. A phase 2 trial of the GSK-3 inhibitor tideglusib in progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord 2014;29:470-8.
38. Colosimo C, Morgante L, Antonini A, et al. Non-motor symptoms in atypical and secondary parkinsonism: the PRIAMO study. J Neurol 2010;257:5-14.
39. Kouri N, Murray ME, Hassan A, et al. Neuropathological features of corticobasal degeneration presenting as corticobasal syndrome or Richardson syndrome. Brain 2011;134:3264-75.
40. Lee SE, Rabinovici GD, Mayo MC, et al. Clinicopathological correlations in corticobasal degeneration. Ann Neurol 2011;70:327-40.
41. Borroni B, Alberici A, Agosti C, et al. Pattern of behavioral disturbances in corticobasal degeneration syndrome and progressive supranuclear palsy. Int Psychogeriatr 2009;21:463-8.
42. Lee W, Williams DR, Storey E. Cognitive testing in the diagnosis of parkinsonian disorders: a critical appraisal of the literature. Mov Disord 2012;27:1243-54.
43. Rittman T, Ghosh BC, McColgan P, et al. The Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination for the differential diagnosis and longitudinal assessment of patients with parkinsonian disorders. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 2013;84(5):544-51.
44. Chand P, Grafman J, Dickson D, et al. Alzheimer's disease presenting as corticobasal syndrome. Mov Disord 2006;21:2018-22.
45. Hassan A, Whitwell JL, Josephs KA. The corticobasal syndrome-Alzheimer's disease conundrum. Expert Rev Neurother 2011;11:1569-78.
46. Schrag A, Good CD, Miszkiel K, et al. Differentiation of atypical parkinsonian syndromes with routine MRI. Neurology 2000;54:697-702.
47. Hellwig S, Amtage F, Kreft A, et al. [18F]FDG-PET is superior to [123I]IBZMSPECT for the differential diagnosis of parkinsonism. Neurology 2012;79: 1314-22.
48. Tripathi M, Dhawan V, Peng S, et al. Differential diagnosis of parkinsonian syndromes using F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography. Neuroradiology 2013;55(4):483-92.
49. Zhao P, Zhang B, Gao S. 18F-FDG PET study on the idiopathic Parkinson's disease from several parkinsonian-plus syndromes. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2012;18(Suppl 1):S60-2.
50. Wenning GK, Geser F, Krismer F, et al. The natural history of multiple system atrophy: a prospective European cohort study. Lancet Neurol 2013;12:264-74.
51. Ozawa T. The COQ2 mutations in Japanese multiple system atrophy: impact on the pathogenesis and phenotypic variation. Mov Disord 2014;29:184.
52. Multiple-System Atrophy Research Collaboration. Mutations in COQ2 in familial and sporadic multiple-system atrophy. N Engl J Med 2013;369:233-44.
53. Batla A, Stamelou M, Mensikova K, et al. Markedly asymmetric presentation in multiple system atrophy. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2013;19:901-5.
54. Wenning GK, Ben Shlomo Y, Magalhaes M, et al. Clinical features and natural history of multiple system atrophy. An analysis of 100 cases. Brain 1994; 117(Pt 4):835-45.
55. Gilman S, Wenning GK, Low PA, et al. Second consensus statement on the diagnosis of multiple system atrophy. Neurology 2008;71:670-6.
56. Iodice V, Lipp A, Ahlskog JE, et al. Autopsy confirmed multiple system atrophy cases: Mayo experience and role of autonomic function tests. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 2012;83:453-9.
57. Schmidt C, Herting B, Prieur S, et al. Autonomic dysfunction in different subtypes of multiple system atrophy. Mov Disord 2008;23:1766-72.
58. Jecmenica-Lukic M, Poewe W, Tolosa E, et al. Premotor signs and symptoms of multiple system atrophy. Lancet Neurol 2012;11:361-8.
59. Kimpinski K, Iodice V, Burton DD, et al. The role of autonomic testing in the differentiation of Parkinson's disease from multiple system atrophy. J Neurol Sci 2012;317:92-6.
60. Benarroch EE, Schmeichel AM, Sandroni P, et al. Involvement of vagal autonomic nuclei in multiple system atrophy and Lewy body disease. Neurology 2006;66:378-83.
61. Magalhaes M, Wenning GK, Daniel SE, et al. Autonomic dysfunction in pathologically confirmed multiple system atrophy and idiopathic Parkinson's disease- a retrospective comparison. Acta Neurol Scand 1995;91:98-102.
62. Wenning GK, Tison F, Ben Shlomo Y, et al. Multiple system atrophy: a review of 203 pathologically proven cases. Mov Disord 1997;12:133-47.
63. Munschauer FE, Loh L, Bannister R, et al. Abnormal respiration and sudden death during sleep in multiple system atrophy with autonomic failure. Neurology 1990;40:677-9.
64. Kitae S, Murata Y, Tachiki N, et al. Assessment of cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction in multiple system atrophy. Clin Auton Res 2001;11:39-44.
65. Plazzi G, Cortelli P, Montagna P, et al. REM sleep behaviour disorder differentiates pure autonomic failure from multiple system atrophy with autonomic failure. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1998;64:683-5.
66. Vetrugno R, D'Angelo R, Cortelli P, et al. Impaired cortical and autonomic arousal during sleep in multiple system atrophy. Clin Neurophysiol 2007;118:2512-8.
67. Ahmed Z, Asi YT, Lees AJ, et al. Identification and quantification of oligodendrocyte precursor cells in multiple system atrophy, progressive supranuclear palsy and Parkinson's disease. Brain Pathol 2013;23(3):263-73.
68. Gilman S, Koeppe RA, Chervin RD, et al. REM sleep behavior disorder is related to striatal monoaminergic deficit in MSA. Neurology 2003;61:29-34.
69. Iranzo A, Santamaria J, Rye DB, et al. Characteristics of idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder and that associated with MSA and PD. Neurology 2005;65: 247-52.
70. Plazzi G, Corsini R, Provini F, et al. REM sleep behavior disorders in multiple system atrophy. Neurology 1997;48:1094-7.
71. Tison F, Wenning GK, Quinn NP, et al. REM sleep behaviour disorder as the presenting symptom of multiple system atrophy. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1995;58:379-80.
72. Gilman S, Low P, Quinn N, et al. Consensus statement on the diagnosis of multiple system atrophy. American Autonomic Society and American Academy of Neurology. Clin Auton Res 1998;8:359-62.
73. Asahina M, Akaogi Y, Yamanaka Y, et al. Differences in skin sympathetic involvements between two chronic autonomic disorders: multiple system atrophy and pure autonomic failure. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2009;15:347-50.
74. Asahina M, Young TM, Bleasdale-Barr K, et al. Differences in overshoot of blood pressure after head-up tilt in two groups with chronic autonomic failure: pure autonomic failure and multiple system atrophy. J Neurol 2005;252:72-7.
75. Brisinda D, Sorbo AR, Di Giacopo R, et al. Cardiovascular autonomic nervous system evaluation in Parkinson disease and multiple system atrophy. J Neurol Sci 2014;336:197-202.
76. Deguchi K, Ikeda K, Shimamura M, et al. Assessment of autonomic dysfunction of multiple system atrophy with laryngeal abductor paralysis as an early manifestation. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 2007;109:892-5.
77. Marrannes J, Mulleners E. Hot cross bun sign in a patient with SCA-2. JBR-BTR 2009;92:263.
78. Han YH, Lee JH, Kang BM, et al. Topographical differences of brain iron deposition between progressive supranuclear palsy and parkinsonian variant multiple system atrophy. J Neurol Sci 2013;325:29-35.
79. Tha KK, Terae S, Tsukahara A, et al. Hyperintense putaminal rim at 1.5 T: prevalence in normal subjects and distinguishing features from multiple system atrophy. BMC Neurol 2012;12:39.
80. Shi M, Bradner J, Hancock AM, et al. Cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for Parkinson disease diagnosis and progression. Ann Neurol 2011;69:570-80.
81. Silajdzic E, Constantinescu R, Holmberg B, et al. Flt3 ligand does not differentiate between Parkinsonian disorders. Mov Disord 2014;29(10): 1319-22.
82. Ahmed Z, Asi YT, Sailer A, et al. The neuropathology, pathophysiology and genetics of multiple system atrophy. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2012;38: 4-24.
83. Dickson DW, Lin W, Liu WK, et al. Multiple system atrophy: a sporadic synucleinopathy. Brain Pathol 1999;9:721-32.
84. Kaufmann H, Freeman R, Biaggioni I, et al, On behalf of the NOH301 Investigators. Droxidopa for neurogenic orthostatic hypotension: a randomized, placebocontrolled, phase 3 trial. Neurology 2014;83(4):328-35.
85. Poewe W, Barone P, Gliadi N, et al. A randomized, placebo-controlled clinical trial to assess the effects of rasagiline in patients with multiple system atrophy of the parkinsonian subtype. Mov Disord 2012;27:1182.
86. Low PA, Robertson D, Gilman S, et al. Efficacy and safety of rifampicin for multiple system atrophy: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol 2014;13:268-75.
87. Novak P, Williams A, Ravin P, et al. Treatment of multiple system atrophy using intravenous immunoglobulin. BMC Neurol 2012;12:131.
88. Lee PH, Lee JE, Kim HS, et al. A randomized trial of mesenchymal stem cells in multiple system atrophy. Ann Neurol 2012;72:32-40.
89. Palma JA, Kaufmann H. Novel therapeutic approaches in multiple system atrophy. Clin Auton Res 2014. [Epub ahead of print].
90. Papapetropoulos S, Gonzalez J, Mash DC. Natural history of progressive supranuclear palsy: a clinicopathologic study from a population of brain donors. Eur Neurol 2005;54:1-9.
91. Weeks RA, Scaravilli F, Lees AJ, et al. Cerebral amyloid angiopathy and motor neurone disease presenting with a progressive supranuclear palsy-like syndrome. Mov Disord 2003;18:331-6.
92. Petrovic IN, Martin-Bastida A, Massey L, et al. MM2 subtype of sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease may underlie the clinical presentation of progressive supranuclear palsy. J Neurol 2013;260(4):1031-6.
93. Lannuzel A, Hoglinger GU, Verhaeghe S, et al. Atypical parkinsonism in Guadeloupe: a common risk factor for two closely related phenotypes? Brain 2007;130:816-27.
94. Gilbert RM, Fahn S, Mitsumoto H, et al. Parkinsonism and motor neuron diseases: twenty-seven patients with diverse overlap syndromes. Mov Disord 2010;25:1868-75.
95. Kasahata N, Uchihara T, Orimo S, et al. Limbic and nigral Lewy bodies and Alzheimer's disease pathology mimicking progressive supranuclear palsy in a 75-year-old man with preserved cardiac uptake of MIBG. J Alzheimers Dis 2012;32(4):889-94.
96. Josephs KA, Holton JL, Rossor MN, et al. Neurofilament inclusion body disease: a new proteinopathy? Brain 2003;126:2291-303.
97. Yokota O, Tsuchiya K, Terada S, et al. Basophilic inclusion body disease and neuronal intermediate filament inclusion disease: a comparative clinicopathological study. Acta Neuropathol 2008;115:561-75.
98. Norlinah IM, Bhatia KP, Ostergaard K, et al. Primary lateral sclerosis mimicking atypical parkinsonism. Mov Disord 2007;22:2057-62.
99. Bonelli RM, Cummings JL. Frontal-subcortical dementias. Neurologist 2008;14: 100-7.
100. Choi SM, Kim BC, Nam TS, et al. Midbrain atrophy in vascular Parkinsonism. Eur Neurol 2011;65:296-301.
101. Daniel SE, de Bruin VM, Lees AJ. The clinical and pathological spectrum of Steele-Richardson-Olszewski syndrome (progressive supranuclear palsy): a reappraisal. Brain 1995;118(Pt 3):759-70.
102. Favaretto S, Ferrari S, Battistin L, et al. Apraxia of eyelid closure in autopsyconfirmed vascular progressive supranuclear palsy. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2011;17:708-9.
103. Mokri B, Ahlskog JE, Fulgham JR, et al. Syndrome resembling PSP after surgical repair of ascending aorta dissection or aneurysm. Neurology 2004;62: 971-3.
104. Bhatia KP, Lee MS, Rinne JO, et al. Corticobasal degeneration look-alikes. Adv Neurol 2000;82:169-82.
105. Engelen M, Westhoff D, de Gans J, et al. A 64-year old man presenting with carotid artery occlusion and corticobasal syndrome: a case report. J Med Case Rep 2011;5:357.
106. Horvath J, Burkhard PR, Bouras C, et al. Etiologies of parkinsonism in a centurylong autopsy-based cohort. Brain Pathol 2013;23(1):28-33.
107. Lagier JC, Lepidi H, Raoult D, et al. Systemic Tropheryma whipplei: clinical presentation of 142 patients with infections diagnosed or confirmed in a reference center. Medicine (Baltimore) 2010;89:337-45.
108. Mohamed W, Neil E, Kupsky WJ, et al. Isolated intracranial Whipple's disease- report of a rare case and review of the literature. J Neurol Sci 2011;308:1-8.
109. Murialdo A, Marchese R, Abbruzzese G, et al. Neurosyphilis presenting as progressive supranuclear palsy. Mov Disord 2000;15:730-1.
110. Page NG, Lean JS, Sanders MD. Vertical supranuclear gaze palsy with secondary syphilis. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatr 1982;45:86-8.
111. Jang W, Kim JS, Ahn JY, et al. Reversible progressive supranuclear palsy-like phenotype as an initial manifestation of HIV infection. Neurol Sci 2011;33(5): 1169-71.
112. Benito-Leon J, Alvarez-Linera J, Louis ED. Neurosyphilis masquerading as corticobasal degeneration. Mov Disord 2004;19:1367-70.
113. Van Zanducke M, Dehaene I. A "cortico-basal degeneration"-like syndrome as first sign of progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy. Acta Neurol Belg 2000; 100:242-5.
114. Adams C, McKeon A, Silber MH, et al. Narcolepsy, REM sleep behavior disorder, and supranuclear gaze palsy associated with Ma1 and Ma2 antibodies and tonsillar carcinoma. Arch Neurol 2011;68:521-4.
115. Castle J, Sakonju A, Dalmau J, et al. Anti-Ma2-associated encephalitis with normal FDG-PET: a case of pseudo-Whipple's disease. Nat Clin Pract Neurol 2006;2:566-72 [quiz: 573].
116. Jankovic J. Progressive supranuclear palsy: paraneoplastic effect of bronchial carcinoma. Neurology 1985;35:446-7.
117. Tan JH, Goh BC, Tambyah PA, et al. Paraneoplastic progressive supranuclear palsy syndrome in a patient with B-cell lymphoma. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2005;11:187-91.
118. Peeters E, Vanacker P, Woodhall M, et al. Supranuclear gaze palsy in glycine receptor antibody-positive progressive encephalomyelitis with rigidity and myoclonus. Mov Disord 2012;27(14):1830-2.
119. Schlegel U, Clarenbach P, Cordt A, et al. Cerebral sarcoidosis presenting as supranuclear gaze palsy with hypokinetic rigid syndrome. Mov Disord 1989;4: 274-7.
120. Martino D, Chew NK, Mir P, et al. Atypical movement disorders in antiphospholipid syndrome. Mov Disord 2006;21:944-9.
121. Morris HR, Lees AJ. Primary antiphospholipid syndrome presenting as a corticobasal degeneration syndrome. Mov Disord 1999;14:530-2.