Asthma and obesity in children: Current evidence and potential systems biology approaches

Allergy: European Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology

Volumn 70, Issue 1, 2016, Pages 26-40

  Frey, U ^a   Latzin, P ^a   Usemann, J ^b   Maccora, J ^a   Zumsteg, U ^a   Kriemler, S ^c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

^b CHARITÉ UNIVERSITÄTSMEDIZIN BERLIN   (Germany)

^c UNIVERSITY OF BASEL   (Switzerland)

^d UNIVERSITY OF ZURICH   (Switzerland)

Author keywords

asthma; children; lung function; obesity; systems physiology

Indexed keywords

LEPTIN;

ADOLESCENT; AIR POLLUTION; ASTHMA; BEHAVIOR; BIRTH WEIGHT; BODY MASS; BRONCHUS HYPERREACTIVITY; CHILD; CHILDHOOD DISEASE; CHILDHOOD OBESITY; COMORBIDITY; COUGHING; DIET; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DYSPNEA; ENVIRONMENTAL FACTOR; EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY; FEMALE; GENETIC LINKAGE; HORMONE ACTION; HUMAN; INFANT; LIFESTYLE; LUNG DEVELOPMENT; LUNG FUNCTION; LUNG MECHANICS; MALE; MATERNAL NUTRITION; NON INSULIN DEPENDENT DIABETES MELLITUS; NUTRITION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCHOOL CHILD; SEX DIFFERENCE; SYSTEMS BIOLOGY; TOBACCO; WEIGHT GAIN; WHEEZING; AGE; COMPLICATION; OBESITY; PROCEDURES;

AGE FACTORS; ASTHMA; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; HUMANS; OBESITY; SYSTEMS BIOLOGY;

EID: 84916218796     PISSN: 01054538     EISSN: 13989995     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/all.12525     Document Type: Review

References (117)

1. Kelly AS, Barlow SE, Rao G, Inge TH, Hayman LL, Steinberger J, et al. Severe obesity in children and adolescents: identification, associated health risks, and treatment approaches: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2013; 128: 1689-1712.
2. Kauffmann F, Demenais F,. Gene-environment interactions in asthma and allergic diseases: challenges and perspectives. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2012; 130: 1229-1240.
3. Ng M, Fleming T, Robinson M, Thomson B, Graetz N, Margono C, et al. Global, regional, and national prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adults during 1980-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2014; 384: 766-781.
4. Mallol J, Crane J, von Mutius E, Odhiambo J, Keil U, Stewart A, et al. The International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase three: a global synthesis. Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) 2013; 41: 73-85.
5. Matricardi PM, Gruber C, Wahn U, Lau S,. The asthma-obesity link in childhood: open questions, complex evidence, a few answers only. Clin Exp Allergy 2007; 37: 476-484.
6. Tantisira KG, Weiss ST,. Complex interactions in complex traits: obesity and asthma. Thorax 2001; 56 (Suppl. 2): ii64-ii73.
7. Rzehak P, Wijga AH, Keil T, Eller E, Bindslev-Jensen C, Smit HA, et al. Body mass index trajectory classes and incident asthma in childhood: results from 8 European Birth Cohorts-a Global Allergy and Asthma European Network initiative. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2013; 131: 1528-1536.
8. Chen YC, Dong GH, Lin KC, Lee YL,. Gender difference of childhood overweight and obesity in predicting the risk of incident asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev 2013; 14: 222-231.
9. Papoutsakis C, Priftis KN, Drakouli M, Prifti S, Konstantaki E, Chondronikola M, et al. Childhood overweight/obesity and asthma: is there a link? A systematic review of recent epidemiologic evidence. J Acad Nutr Diet 2013; 113: 77-105.
10. Adeniyi FB, Young T,. Weight loss interventions for chronic asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 7: CD009339.
11. van Veen IH, Ten Brinke A, Sterk PJ, Rabe KF, Bel EH,. Airway inflammation in obese and nonobese patients with difficult-to-treat asthma. Allergy 2008; 63: 570-574.
12. Dixon AE, Clerisme-Beaty EM, Sugar EA, Cohen RI, Lang JE, Brown ED, et al. Effects of obstructive sleep apnea and gastroesophageal reflux disease on asthma control in obesity. J Asthma 2011; 48: 707-713.
13. Bush A, Frey U, Teague WG,. Special problems of severe asthma in childhood. Eur Respir Monograph 2011; 51: 59-81.
14. Ornoy A,. Prenatal origin of obesity and their complications: gestational diabetes, maternal overweight and the paradoxical effects of fetal growth restriction and macrosomia. Reprod Toxicol 2011; 32: 205-212.
15. Ly NP, Litonjua A, Gold DR, Celedon JC,. Gut microbiota, probiotics, and vitamin D: interrelated exposures influencing allergy, asthma, and obesity? J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 1087-1094.
16. Castro-Giner F, Kogevinas M, Imboden M, de Cid R, Jarvis D, Machler M, et al. Joint effect of obesity and TNFA variability on asthma: two international cohort studies. Eur Respir J 2009; 33: 1003-1009.
17. Murphy A, Tantisira KG, Soto-Quiros ME, Avila L, Klanderman BJ, Lake S, et al. PRKCA: a positional candidate gene for body mass index and asthma. Am J Hum Genet 2009; 85: 87-96.
18. Melen E, Granell R, Kogevinas M, Strachan D, Gonzalez JR, Wjst M, et al. Genome-wide association study of body mass index in 23 000 individuals with and without asthma. Clin Exp Allergy 2013; 43: 463-474.
19. Tesse R, Schieck M, Kabesch M,. Asthma and endocrine disorders: shared mechanisms and genetic pleiotropy. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2011; 333: 103-111.
20. Waterland RA,. Assessing the effects of high methionine intake on DNA methylation. J Nutr 2006; 136 (Suppl. 6): 1706S-1710S.
21. Rastogi D, Suzuki M, Greally JM,. Differential epigenome-wide DNA methylation patterns in childhood obesity-associated asthma. Sci Rep 2013; 3: 2164.
22. Wu Q, Suzuki M,. Parental obesity and overweight affect the body-fat accumulation in the offspring: the possible effect of a high-fat diet through epigenetic inheritance. Obes Rev 2006; 7: 201-208.
23. Chatzi L, Torrent M, Romieu I, Garcia-Esteban R, Ferrer C, Vioque J, et al. Mediterranean diet in pregnancy is protective for wheeze and atopy in childhood. Thorax 2008; 63: 507-513.
24. Miyake Y, Sasaki S, Tanaka K, Hirota Y,. Dairy food, calcium and vitamin D intake in pregnancy, and wheeze and eczema in infants. Eur Respir J 2010; 35: 1228-1234.
25. Lumia M, Luukkainen P, Tapanainen H, Kaila M, Erkkola M, Uusitalo L, et al. Dietary fatty acid composition during pregnancy and the risk of asthma in the offspring. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2011; 22: 827-835.
26. Erkkola M, Nwaru BI, Kaila M, Kronberg-Kippila C, Ilonen J, Simell O, et al. Risk of asthma and allergic outcomes in the offspring in relation to maternal food consumption during pregnancy: a Finnish birth cohort study. Pediatr Allergy Immunol 2012; 23: 186-194.
27. Gupta A, Bush A, Hawrylowicz C, Saglani S,. Vitamin D and asthma in children. Paediatr Respir Rev 2012; 13: 236-243.
28. Monasta L, Batty GD, Cattaneo A, Lutje V, Ronfani L, Van Lenthe FJ, et al. Early-life determinants of overweight and obesity: a review of systematic reviews. Obes Rev 2010; 11: 695-708.
29. Ortqvist AK, Lundholm C, Carlstrom E, Lichtenstein P, Cnattingius S, Almqvist C,. Familial factors do not confound the association between birth weight and childhood asthma. Pediatrics 2009; 124: e737-e743.
30. Flaherman V, Rutherford GW,. A meta-analysis of the effect of high weight on asthma. Arch Dis Child 2006; 91: 334-339.
31. Mu M, Ye S, Bai MJ, Liu GL, Tong Y, Wang SF, et al. Birth Weight and Subsequent Risk of Asthma: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Heart Lung Circ 2014; 23: 511-519.
32. Curry BA, Blizzard CL, Schmidt MD, Walters EH, Dwyer T, Venn AJ,. Longitudinal associations of adiposity with adult lung function in the Childhood Determinants of Adult Health (CDAH) study. Obesity (Silver Spring) 2011; 19: 2069-2075.
33. Zhang Z, Lai HJ, Roberg KA, Gangnon RE, Evans MD, Anderson EL, et al. Early childhood weight status in relation to asthma development in high-risk children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 126: 1157-1162.
34. Duncan JM, Sears MR,. Breastfeeding and allergies: time for a change in paradigm? Curr Opin Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 8: 398-405.
35. Dogaru CM, Nyffenegger D, Pescatore AM, Spycher BD, Kuehni CE,. Breastfeeding and childhood asthma: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Epidemiol 2014; 179: 1153-1167.
36. Lefebvre CM, John RM,. The effect of breastfeeding on childhood overweight and obesity: a systematic review of the literature. J Am Assoc Nurse Pract 2013; 26: 386-401.
37. Hawrylowicz C, Ryanna K,. Asthma and allergy: the early beginnings. Nat Med 2010; 16: 274-275.
38. McCloud E, Papoutsakis C,. A medical nutrition therapy primer for childhood asthma: current and emerging perspectives. J Am Diet Assoc 2011; 111: 1052-1064.
39. Ellwood P, Asher MI, Garcia-Marcos L, Williams H, Keil U, Robertson C, et al. Do fast foods cause asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema? Global findings from the International Study of Asthma and Allergies in Childhood (ISAAC) phase three. Thorax 2013; 68: 351-360.
40. Trompette A, Gollwitzer ES, Yadava K, Sichelstiel AK, Sprenger N, Ngom-Bru C, et al. Gut microbiota metabolism of dietary fiber influences allergic airway disease and hematopoiesis. Nat Med 2014; 20: 159-166.
41. Husemoen LL, Glumer C, Lau C, Pisinger C, Morch LS, Linneberg A,. Association of obesity and insulin resistance with asthma and aeroallergen sensitization. Allergy 2008; 63: 575-582.
42. Mantzoros CS, Rifas-Shiman SL, Williams CJ, Fargnoli JL, Kelesidis T, Gillman MW,. Cord blood leptin and adiponectin as predictors of adiposity in children at 3 years of age: a prospective cohort study. Pediatrics 2009; 123: 682-689.
43. Rothenbacher D, Weyermann M, Fantuzzi G, Brenner H,. Adipokines in cord blood and risk of wheezing disorders within the first two years of life. Clin Exp Allergy 2007; 37: 1143-1149.
44. Torday JS, Sun H, Wang L, Torres E, Sunday ME, Rubin LP,. Leptin mediates the parathyroid hormone-related protein paracrine stimulation of fetal lung maturation. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2002; 282: L405-L410.
45. Matarese G, Procaccini C, De Rosa V, Horvath TL, La Cava A,. Regulatory T cells in obesity: the leptin connection. Trends Mol Med 2010; 16: 247-256.
46. Jartti T, Saarikoski L, Jartti L, Lisinen I, Jula A, Huupponen R, et al. Obesity, adipokines and asthma. Allergy 2009; 64: 770-777.
47. Weiss ST,. Obesity: insight into the origins of asthma. Nat Immunol 2005; 6: 537-539.
48. Thomsen SF, Ulrik CS, Kyvik KO, Sorensen TI, Posthuma D, Skadhauge LR, et al. Association between obesity and asthma in a twin cohort. Allergy 2007; 62: 1199-1204.
49. Guibas GV, Manios Y, Xepapadaki P, Moschonis G, Douladiris N, Mavrogianni C, et al. The obesity-asthma link in different ages and the role of body mass index in its investigation: findings from the Genesis and Healthy Growth Studies. Allergy 2013; 68: 1298-1305.
50. Willeboordse M, van den Bersselaar DL, van de Kant KD, Muris JW, van Schayck OC, Dompeling E,. Sex Differences in the Relationship between Asthma and Overweight in Dutch Children: a Survey Study. PLoS ONE 2013; 8: e77574.
51. Chen YC, Dong GH, Lin KC, Lee YL,. Gender difference of childhood overweight and obesity in predicting the risk of incident asthma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Obes Rev 2012; 14: 222-231.
52. Behazin N, Jones SB, Cohen RI, Loring SH,. Respiratory restriction and elevated pleural and esophageal pressures in morbid obesity. J Appl Physiol 2010; 108: 212-218.
53. Jones RL, Nzekwu MM,. The effects of body mass index on lung volumes. Chest 2006; 130: 827-833.
54. Ferretti A, Giampiccolo P, Cavalli A, Milic-Emili J, Tantucci C,. Expiratory flow limitation and orthopnea in massively obese subjects. Chest 2001; 119: 1401-1408.
55. Sampson MG, Grassino AE,. Load compensation in obese patients during quiet tidal breathing. J Appl Physiol 1983; 55: 1269-1276.
56. Babb TG, Buskirk ER, Hodgson JL,. Exercise end-expiratory lung volumes in lean and moderately obese women. Int J Obes 1989; 13: 11-19.
57. Fredberg JJ, Jones KA, Nathan M, Raboudi S, Prakash YS, Shore SA, et al. Friction in airway smooth muscle: mechanism, latch, and implications in asthma. J Appl Physiol 1996; 81: 2703-2712.
58. Tantisira KG, Litonjua AA, Weiss ST, Fuhlbrigge AL,. Association of body mass with pulmonary function in the Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP). Thorax 2003; 58: 1036-1041.
59. Kwon JW, Kim SH, Kim TB, Kim SH, Park HW, Chang YS, et al. Airway hyperresponsiveness is negatively associated with obesity or overweight status in patients with asthma. Int Arch Allergy Immunol 2012; 159: 187-193.
60. Shore SA,. Obesity, airway hyperresponsiveness, and inflammation. J Appl Physiol 2010; 108: 735-743.
61. Thomson RJ, Bramley AM, Schellenberg RR,. Airway muscle stereology: implications for increased shortening in asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1996; 154: 749-757.
62. Zerah F, Harf A, Perlemuter L, Lorino H, Lorino AM, Atlan G,. Effects of obesity on respiratory resistance. Chest 1993; 103: 1470-1476.
63. Cooper DM, Nemet D, Galassetti P,. Exercise, stress, and inflammation in the growing child: from the bench to the playground. Curr Opin Pediatr 2004; 16: 286-292.
64. Pedersen BK,. The diseasome of physical inactivity-and the role of myokines in muscle-fat cross talk. J Physiol 2009; 587: 5559-5568.
65. Rasmussen F, Lambrechtsen J, Siersted HC, Hansen HS, Hansen NC,. Low physical fitness in childhood is associated with the development of asthma in young adulthood: the Odense schoolchild study. Eur Respir J 2000; 16: 866-870.
66. Cottrell L, Neal WA, Ice C, Perez MK, Piedimonte G,. Metabolic abnormalities in children with asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 441-448.
67. Celedon JC, Kolls JK,. An innate link between obesity and asthma. Nat Med 2014; 20: 19-20.
68. von Mutius E, Schwartz J, Neas LM, Dockery D, Weiss ST,. Relation of body mass index to asthma and atopy in children: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Study III. Thorax 2001; 56: 835-838.
69. Silverberg JI, Kleiman E, Lev-Tov H, Silverberg NB, Durkin HG, Joks R, et al. Association between obesity and atopic dermatitis in childhood: a case-control study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 1180-1186.
70. Huang SL, Shiao G, Chou P,. Association between body mass index and allergy in teenage girls in Taiwan. Clin Exp Allergy 1999; 29: 323-329.
71. Visness CM, London SJ, Daniels JL, Kaufman JS, Yeatts KB, Siega-Riz AM, et al. Association of childhood obesity with atopic and nonatopic asthma: results from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 1999-2006. J Asthma 2010; 47: 822-829.
72. Sithole F, Douwes J, Burstyn I, Veugelers P,. Body mass index and childhood asthma: a linear association? J Asthma 2008; 45: 473-477.
73. Kajbaf TZ, Asar S, Alipoor MR,. Relationship between obesity and asthma symptoms among children in Ahvaz, Iran: a cross sectional study. Ital J Pediatr 2011; 37: 1.
74. Rodriguez MA, Winkleby MA, Ahn D, Sundquist J, Kraemer HC,. Identification of population subgroups of children and adolescents with high asthma prevalence: findings from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 2002; 156: 269-275.
75. Tremblay MS, LeBlanc AG, Kho ME, Saunders TJ, Larouche R, Colley RC, et al. Systematic review of sedentary behaviour and health indicators in school-aged children and youth. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2011; 8: 98.
76. Epstein LH, Wu YW, Paluch RA, Cerny FJ, Dorn JP,. Asthma and maternal body mass index are related to pediatric body mass index and obesity: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Obes Res 2000; 8: 575-581.
77. Firrincieli V, Keller A, Ehrensberger R, Platts-Mills J, Shufflebarger C, Geldmaker B, et al. Decreased physical activity among Head Start children with a history of wheezing: use of an accelerometer to measure activity. Pediatr Pulmonol 2005; 40: 57-63.
78. Puhl RM, Latner JD,. Stigma, obesity, and the health of the nation's children. Psychol Bull 2007; 133: 557-580.
79. Cohen GJ,. Helping children and families deal with divorce and separation. Pediatrics 2002; 110: 1019-1023.
80. Bender BG, Fuhlbrigge A, Walders N, Zhang L,. Overweight, race, and psychological distress in children in the Childhood Asthma Management Program. Pediatrics 2007; 120: 805-813.
81. Chen E, Hanson MD, Paterson LQ, Griffin MJ, Walker HA, Miller GE,. Socioeconomic status and inflammatory processes in childhood asthma: the role of psychological stress. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2006; 117: 1014-1020.
82. Moreira A, Bonini M, Garcia-Larsen V, Bonini S, Del Giacco SR, Agache I, et al. Weight loss interventions in asthma: EAACI evidence-based clinical practice guideline (part I). Allergy 2013; 68: 425-439.
83. Dixon AE, Pratley RE, Forgione PM, Kaminsky DA, Whittaker-Leclair LA, Griffes LA, et al. Effects of obesity and bariatric surgery on airway hyperresponsiveness, asthma control, and inflammation. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 128: 508-515.
84. Jensen ME, Gibson PG, Collins CE, Hilton JM, Wood LG,. Diet-induced weight loss in obese children with asthma: a randomized controlled trial. Clin Exp Allergy 2013; 43: 775-784.
85. Prevention CfDCa. Physical activity for everyone. 2011 [cited 2011 June 30]; Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/physicalactivity/everyone/guidelines/children.html.
86. Mitchell EA, Beasley R, Bjorksten B, Crane J, Garcia-Marcos L, Keil U, et al. The association between BMI, vigorous physical activity and television viewing and the risk of symptoms of asthma, rhinoconjunctivitis and eczema in children and adolescents: ISAAC Phase Three. Clin Exp Allergy 2013; 43: 73-84.
87. Kriemler S, Meyer U, Martin E, van Sluijs EM, Andersen LB, Martin BW,. Effect of school-based interventions on physical activity and fitness in children and adolescents: a review of reviews and systematic update. Br J Sports Med 2011; 45: 923-930.
88. Dixon AE, Shade DM, Cohen RI, Skloot GS, Holbrook JT, Smith LJ, et al. Effect of obesity on clinical presentation and response to treatment in asthma. J Asthma 2006; 43: 553-558.
89. Mosen DM, Schatz M, Magid DJ, Camargo CA Jr,. The relationship between obesity and asthma severity and control in adults. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 122: 507-511.
90. Forno E, Lescher R, Strunk R, Weiss S, Fuhlbrigge A, Celedon JC,. Decreased response to inhaled steroids in overweight and obese asthmatic children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 741-749.
91. Quinto KB, Zuraw BL, Poon KY, Chen W, Schatz M, Christiansen SC,. The association of obesity and asthma severity and control in children. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 128: 964-969.
92. Moore WC, Meyers DA, Wenzel SE, Teague WG, Li H, Li X, et al. Identification of asthma phenotypes using cluster analysis in the Severe Asthma Research Program. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 181: 315-323.
93. Telenga ED, Tideman SW, Kerstjens HA, Hacken NH, Timens W, Postma DS, et al. Obesity in asthma: more neutrophilic inflammation as a possible explanation for a reduced treatment response. Allergy 2012; 67: 1060-1068.
94. Webster JC, Oakley RH, Jewell CM, Cidlowski JA,. Proinflammatory cytokines regulate human glucocorticoid receptor gene expression and lead to the accumulation of the dominant negative beta isoform: a mechanism for the generation of glucocorticoid resistance. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001; 98: 6865-6870.
95. Washington RL,. Childhood obesity: issues of weight bias. Prev Chronic Dis 2011; 8: A94.
96. Smith LR, Chadwick P, Radley D, Kolotourou M, Gammon CS, Rosborough J, et al. Assessing the short-term outcomes of a community-based intervention for overweight and obese children: The MEND 5-7 programme. BMJ Open 2013; 3: e002607.
97. Sun HW, Wang JP, Wang SZ, Wang YY, Song YP, Yang ZH, et al. Effect of educational and psychological intervention on the quality of life of asthmatic patients. Respir Care 2010; 55: 725-728.
98. Bateman ED, Hurd SS, Barnes PJ, Bousquet J, Drazen JM, FitzGerald M, et al. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary. Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 143-178.
99. Willeboordse M, van de Kant KD, de Laat MN, van Schayck OC, Mulkens S, Dompeling E,. Multifactorial intervention for children with asthma and overweight (Mikado): study design of a randomised controlled trial. BMC Public Health 2013; 13: 494.
100. Frey U, Suki B,. Complexity of chronic asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: implications for risk assessment, and disease progression and control. Lancet 2008; 372: 1088-1099.
101. Parsons JP, Hallstrand TS, Mastronarde JG, Kaminsky DA, Rundell KW, Hull JH, et al. An official American Thoracic Society clinical practice guideline: exercise-induced bronchoconstriction. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2013; 187: 1016-1027.
102. Prochaska JO, Di Clemente CC,. The Transtheoretical Approach: Crossing Traditional Boundaries of Change. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press; 1991.
103. McGovern L, Johnson JN, Paulo R, Hettinger A, Singhal V, Kamath C, et al. Clinical review: treatment of pediatric obesity: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized trials. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2008; 93: 4600-4605.
104. Sodlerlund A, Fischer A, Johansson T,. Physical activity, diet and behaviour modification in the treatment of overweight and obese adults: a systematic review. Perspect Public Health 2009; 129: 132-142.
105. Rodearmel SJ, Wyatt HR, Stroebele N, Smith SM, Ogden LG, Hill JO,. Small changes in dietary sugar and physical activity as an approach to preventing excessive weight gain: the America on the Move family study. Pediatrics 2007; 120: e869-e879.
106. Resnicow K, McMaster F,. Motivational Interviewing: moving from why to how with autonomy support. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act 2012; 9: 19.
107. Kirschenbaum DS, Gierut K,. Treatment of childhood and adolescent obesity: an integrative review of recent recommendations from five expert groups. J Consult Clin Psychol 2012; 81: 347-360.
108. Barlow SE, Expert C,. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics 2007; 120 (Suppl. 4): S164-S192.
109. Bonomi AG, Westerterp KR,. Advances in physical activity monitoring and lifestyle interventions in obesity: a review. Int J Obes (Lond) 2012; 36: 167-177.
110. Paridon SM, Alpert BS, Boas SR, Cabrera ME, Caldarera LL, Daniels SR, et al. Clinical stress testing in the pediatric age group: a statement from the American Heart Association Council on Cardiovascular Disease in the Young, Committee on Atherosclerosis, Hypertension, and Obesity in Youth. Circulation 2006; 113: 1905-1920.
111. Newman M, Barabási AL, Watts DJ,. The Structure and Dynamics of Networks. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006: 624.
112. Kitano H,. Systems biology: a brief overview. Science 2002; 295: 1662-1664.
113. Kaminsky DA, Irvin CG, Sterk PJ,. Complex systems in pulmonary medicine: a systems biology approach to lung disease. J Appl Physiol 1985; 2011 (110): 1716-1722.
114. Frey U, Maksym G, Suki B,. Temporal complexity in clinical manifestations of lung disease. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2011; 110: 1723-1731.
115. van Dijk SJ, Molloy PL, Varinli H, Morrison JL, Muhlhausler BS, members of Epi S. Epigenetics and human obesity. Int J Obes (Lond) 2014, doi: 10.1038/ijo.2014.34.
116. Gortmaker SL, Swinburn BA, Levy D, Carter R, Mabry PL, Finegood DT, et al. Changing the future of obesity: science, policy, and action. Lancet 2011; 378: 838-847.
117. Shou C, Bhardwaj N, Lam HY, Yan KK, Kim PM, Snyder M, et al. Measuring the evolutionary rewiring of biological networks. PLoS Comput Biol 2011; 7: e1001050.