The reappraisal of benzodiazepines in the treatment of anxiety and related disorders

Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics

Volumn 14, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 1275-1286

  Starcevic, Vladan ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

Author keywords

antidepressant discontinuation syndrome; anxiety disorders; benzodiazepines; cognitive behavioral therapy; dependence; quetiapine; second generation antipsychotics; selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors; treatment guidelines; withdrawal symptoms

Indexed keywords

BENZODIAZEPINE DERIVATIVE; NEUROLEPTIC AGENT; SEROTONIN NORADRENALIN REUPTAKE INHIBITOR; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; ANXIOLYTIC AGENT;

ANGER; ANXIETY DISORDER; BEHAVIOR; CARDIOVASCULAR MALFORMATION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; DIARRHEA; DROWSINESS; DRUG DEPENDENCE; DRUG INDUCED HEADACHE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERANCE; DRUG USE; DRUG WITHDRAWAL; EXTRAPYRAMIDAL SYMPTOM; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER; HUMAN; HYPONATREMIA; INSOMNIA; IRRITABILITY; LONG TERM CARE; META ANALYSIS (TOPIC); MOTOR DYSFUNCTION; NAUSEA; OSTEOPOROSIS; PANIC; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PSYCHOMOTOR DISORDER; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL (TOPIC); REVIEW; SEDATION; SEXUAL DYSFUNCTION; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP DISORDER; SOCIAL PHOBIA; SUICIDAL IDEATION; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW (TOPIC); UPPER GASTROINTESTINAL BLEEDING; VOMITING; WITHDRAWAL SYNDROME; ANXIETY; ANXIETY DISORDERS;

ANTI-ANXIETY AGENTS; ANXIETY; ANXIETY DISORDERS; BENZODIAZEPINES; HUMANS;

EID: 84911944955     PISSN: 14737175     EISSN: 17448360     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14737175.2014.963057     Document Type: Review

References (99)

1. Bandelow B, Zohar J, Hollander E, et al. World Federation of Societies of Biological Psychiatry (WFSBP) guidelines for the pharmacological treatment of anxiety, obsessive-compulsive and post-traumatic stress disorders-first revision. World J Biol Psychiatry 2008;9:248-312
2. American Psychiatric Association. Practice Guidelines for the Treatment of Patients with Panic Disorder. Second Edition. 2009. Available from: http://psychiatryonline.org/pdfaccess.ashx ResourceID=243182&PDFSource=6
3. National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE). Anxiety disorders. 2014. Available from: www.nice.org.uk/Guidance/QS53
4. Lader M. Benzodiazepines revisited-will we ever learn Addiction 2011;106: 2086-109
5. Balon R. Benzodiazepines revisited. Psychother Psychosom 2013;82:353-4
6. Sareen J, Stein MB. BDZs should be considered in the long-term treatment of mood and anxiety disorders. Can J Psychiatry 2010;55:711-13
7. Starcevic V. Reconsidering benzodiazepines in the treatment of panic disorder. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2012;46:271-2
8. Baldwin DS, Aitchison K, Bateson A, et al. Benzodiazepines: risks and benefits. A reconsideration. J Psychopharmacol 2013;27:967-71
9. Dell'Osso B, Lader M. Do benzodiazepines still deserve a major role in the treatment of psychiatric disorders A critical reappraisal. Eur Psychiatry 2013;28:7-20
10. Starcevic V. Benzodiazepines for anxiety disorders: maximising the benefits and minimising the risks. Adv Psychiatr Treat 2012;18:250-8
11. Baldwin DS, Talat B. Should benzodiazepines still have a role in treating patients with anxiety disorders Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 2012;27:237-8
12. Tyrer P. Why benzodiazepines are not going away. Commentary on.. Benzodiazepines for anxiety disorders. Adv Psychiatr Treat 2012;18:259-62
13. Rickels K. Should benzodiazepines be replaced by antidepressants in the treatment of anxiety disorders Fact or fiction Psychother Psychosom 2013;82:351-2
14. Roy-Byrne P. Treatment in nonresponsive patients with social anxiety: back to the future with benzodiazepines. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171:1-4
15. Ilyas S, Moncrieff J. Trends in prescriptions and costs of drugs for mental disorders in England, 1998-2010. Br J Psychiatry 2012;200:393-8
16. Sonnenberg CM, Bierman EJM, Deeg DJH, et al. Ten-year trends in benzodiazepine use in the Dutch population. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2012;47:293-301
17. Stephenson CP, Karanges E, McGregor IS. Trends in the utilisation of psychotropic medications in Australia from 2000 to 2011. Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2013;47:74-87
18. Islam MM, Conigrave KM, Day CA, et al. Twenty-year trends in benzodiazepine dispensing in the Australian population. Int Med J 2014;44:57-64
19. Neutel CI. The epidemiology of long-term benzodiazepine use. Int Rev Psychiatry 2005;17:189-97
20. Stahl SM. Don't ask, don't tell, but benzodiazepines are still the leading treatments for anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2002;63:756-7
21. Bruce SE, Vasile RG, Goisman RM, et al. Are benzodiazepines still the medication of choice for patients with panic disorder with or without agoraphobia Am J Psychiatry 2003;160:1432-8
22. Vasile RG, Bruce SE, Goisman RM, et al. Results of a naturalistic longitudinal study of benzodiazepine and SSRI use in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia. Depress Anxiety 2005;22: 59-67
23. Smolders M, Laurant M, van Rijswijk E, et al. The impact of co-morbidity on GPs' pharmacological treatment decisions for patients with an anxiety disorder. Fam Practice 2007;24:538-46
24. Demyttenaere K, Bonnewyn A, Bruffaerts R, et al. Clinical factors influencing the prescription of antidepressants and benzodiazepines: results from the European study of the epidemiology of mental disorders (ESEMeD). J Affect Disord 2008;110:84-93
25. Offidani E, Guidi J, Tomba E, Fava GA. Efficacy and tolerability of benzodiazepines versus antidepressants in anxiety disorders: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychother Psychosom 2013;82:355-62
26. Berney P, Halperin D, Tango R, et al. A major change of prescribing pattern in absence of adequate evidence: benzodiazepines versus newer antidepressants in anxiety disorders. Psychopharmacol Bull 2008;41:39-47
27. Healy D. The creation of psychopharmacology. Harvard University Press; Cambridge MA, USA: 2002
28. Nardi AE, Valencą AM, Freire RC, et al. Randomized, open naturalistic, acute treatment of panic disorder with clonazepam or paroxetine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2011;31:259-61
29. Nardi AE, Valencą AM, Freire RC, et al. Psychopharmacotherapy of panic disorder: 8-week randomized trial with clonazepam and paroxetine. Braz J Med Biol Res 2011;44:366-73
30. Nardi AE, Freire RC, Mochcovitch MD, et al. A randomized, naturalistic, parallel-group study for the long-term treatment of panic disorder with clonazepam or paroxetine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2012;32:120-6
31. Pollack MH, Van Ameringen M, Simon NM, et al. A double-blind randomized controlled trial of augmentation and switch strategies for refractory social anxiety disorder. Am J Psychiatry 2014;171: 44-53
32. Goddard AW, Brouette T, Almai A, et al. Early coadministration of clonazepam with sertraline for panic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:681-6
33. Pollack MH, Simon NM, Worthington JJ, et al. Combined paroxetine and clonazepam treatment strategies compared to paroxetine monotherapy for panic disorder. J Psychopharmacol 2003;17:276-82
34. Seedat S, Stein MB. Double-blind, placebo-controlled assessment of combined clonazepam with paroxetine compared with paroxetine monotherapy for generalized social anxiety disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2004;65:244-8
35. Davidson JRT, Petts N, Richichi E, et al. Treatment of social phobia with clonazepam and placebo. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;13:423-8
36. Birk L. Pharmacotherapy for performance anxiety disorders: occasionally useful but typically contraindicated. J Clin Psychol 2004;60:867-79
37. Spiegel DA, Bruce TJ. Benzodiazepines and exposure-based cognitive behavior therapies for panic disorder: conclusions from combined treatment trials. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:773-81
38. Westra HA, Stewart SH, Conrad BE. Naturalistic manner of benzodiazepine use and cognitive behavioral therapy outcome in panic disorder with agoraphobia. J Anxiety Disord 2002;16:233-46
39. Arch JJ, Craske MG. Implications of naturalistic use of pharmacotherapy in CBT treatment for panic disorder. Behav Res Ther 2007;45:1435-47
40. Starcevic V. Anxiety disorders in adults: a clinical guide. 2nd edition. Oxford University Press; New York, NY, USA: 2010
41. Rosen CS, Greenbaum MA, Schnurr PP, et al. Do benzodiazepines reduce the effectiveness of exposure therapy for posttraumatic stress disorder J Clin Psychiatry 2013;74:1241-8
42. Verdoux H, Tournier M, Bégaud B. Antipsychotic prescribing trends: a review of pharmaco-epidemiological studies. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2010;121:4-10
43. Monasterio E, McKean A. Quetiapine use: science or clever marketing Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2013;47:96-7
44. Bernardy NC, Lund BC, Alexander B, Friedman MJ. Prescribing trends in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:297-303
45. Lund BC, Bernardy NC, Alexander B, Friedman MJ. Declining benzodiazepine use in veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:292-6
46. Emelity DC. Emerging bias in the treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 2012;73:304-6
47. Bandelow B, Chouinard G, Bobes J, et al. Extended-release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR): a once-daily monotherapy effective in generalized anxiety disorder. Data from a randomized, double-blind, placebo-and active-controlled study. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2010;13:305-20
48. Katzman MA, Brawman-Mintzer O, Reyes EB, et al. Extended release quetiapine fumarate (quetiapine XR) monotherapy as maintenance treatment for generalized anxiety disorder: a long-term, randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2011;26:11-24
49. Starcevic V. Is the need for medications with calming effects ever going to disappear Aust NZ J Psychiatry 2013;47:971
50. Teff KL, Rickels ML, Grudziak J, et al. Antipsychotic-induced insulin resistance and postprandial hormonal dysregulation independent of weight gain or psychiatric disease. Diabetes 2013;62:3232-40
51. Cerovecki A, Musil R, Klimke A, et al. Withdrawal symptoms and rebound syndromes associated with switching and discontinuing atypical antipsychotics: theoretical background and practical recommendations. CNS Drugs 2013;27: 545-72
52. Baldwin DS, Anderson IM, Nutt DJ, et al. Evidence-based pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder: a revision of the 2005 guidelines from the British Association for Psychopharmacology. J Psychopharmacol 2014;28:403-39
53. Katzman MA, Bleau P, Blier P, et al. Canadian clinical practice guidelines for the management of anxiety, posttraumatic stress and obsessive-compulsive disorders. BMC Psychiatry 2014;14(Suppl 1):S1
54. Cowley DS, Ha EH, Roy-Byrne PP. Determinants of pharmacologic treatment failure in panic disorder. J Clin Psychiatry 1997;58:555-61
55. Anthierens S, Habraken H, Petrovic M, Christiaens T. The lesser evil Initiating a benzodiazepine prescription in general practice. A qualitative study on GPs' perspectives. Scand J Prim Health Care 2007;25:214-19
56. el-Guebaly N. The prevalence of prescriptions and their indications. Can J Psychiatry 2010;55:709-11
57. Shader RI, Greenblatt DJ. Use of benzodiazepines in anxiety disorders. N Engl J Med 1993;328:1398-405
58. Rapoport MJ, Lanctot KL, Streiner DL, et al. Benzodiazepine use and driving: a meta-analysis. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70: 663-73
59. Lucki I, Rickels K, Geller AM. Chronic use of benzodiazepines and psychomotor and cognitive test performance. Psychopharmacology (Berlin) 1986;88: 426-33
60. Freeman SA. The benzodiazepine stigma persists. J Clin Psychiatry 2009;70:1727-8
61. Stewart SA. The effects of benzodiazepines on cognition. J Clin Psychiatry 2005; 66(Suppl 2):9-13
62. Mura T, Proust-Lima C, Akbaraly T, et al. Chronic use of benzodiazepines and latent cognitive decline in the elderly: results from the Three-city study. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2013;23:212-23
63. Busto UE, Bremner KE, Knight K, et al. Long-term benzodiazepine therapy does not result in brain abnormalities. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;20:2-6
64. Wagner AK, Ross-Degnan D, Gurwitz JH, et al. Effect of New York State regulatory action on benzodiazepine prescribing and hip fracture rates. Ann Intern Med 2007;146:96-103
65. Woolcott JC, Richardson KJ, Wiens MO, et al. Meta-analysis of the impact of 9 medication classes on falls in elderly persons. Arch Intern Med 2009;169: 1952-60
66. Cook JM, Biyanova T, Masci C, Coyne JC. Older patient perspectives on long-term anxiolytic benzodiazepine use and discontinuation: a qualitative study. J Gen Intern Med 2007;22:1094-100
67. Cook JM, Biyanova T, Thompson R, Coyne JC. Older primary care patients' willingness to consider discontinuation of chronic benzodiazepines. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2007;29:396-401
68. Rothschild AJ, Shindul-Rothschild J, Viguera A, et al. Comparison of the frequency of behavioral disinhibition on alprazolam, clonazepam, or no benzodiazepine in hospitalized psychiatric patients. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2000;20: 7-11
69. Nagy LM, Krystal JH, Woods SW, Charney DS. Clinical and medication outcome after short-term alprazolam and behavioral group treatment in panic disorder: 2.5 year naturalistic follow-up study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989;46:993-9
70. Pollack MH, Otto MW, Tesar GE, et al. Long-term outcome after acute treatment with alprazolam or clonazepam for panic disorder. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1993;13: 257-63
71. Worthington JJ, Pollack MH, Otto MW, et al. Long-term experience with clonazepam in patients with a primary diagnosis of panic disorder. Psychopharmacol Bull 1998;34:199-205
72. Soumerai SB, Simoni-Wastila L, Singer C, et al. Lack of relationship between long-term use of benzodiazepines and escalation to high dosages. Psychiatr Services 2003;54:1006-11
73. Balter MB, Ban TA, Uhlenhuth EH. International study of expert judgment on therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and other psychotherapeutic medications: I. Current concerns. Hum Psychopharmacol Clin Exp 1993;8:253-61
74. Uhlenhuth EH, Balter MB, Ban TA, Yang KMS. International study of expert judgment on therapeutic use of benzodiazepines and other psychotherapeutic medications: IV. Therapeutic dose dependence and abuse liability of benzodiazepines in the long-term treatment of anxiety disorders. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1999;19(Suppl 2):23S-9S
75. Labelle A, Lapierre YD. Anxiety disorders. Part 2: pharmacotherapy with benzodiazepines. Can Fam Physician 1993;39:2205-13
76. Starcevic V. Issues in the pharmacological treatment of anxiety disorders. Australas Psychiatry 2005;13:371-4
77. Bühler KE. Euphoria, ecstasy, inebriation, abuse, dependence, and addiction: a conceptual analysis. Med Health Care Phil 2005;8:79-87
78. Haefely W. Biological basis of drug-induced tolerance, rebound, and dependence: contribution of recent research on benzodiazepines. Pharmacopsychiatry 1986;19:353-61
79. Rosenbaum JF. Attitudes toward benzodiazepines over the years. J Clin Psychiatry 2005;66(Suppl 2):4-8
80. Tyrer P, Rutherford D, Huggett T. Benzodiazepine withdrawal symptoms and propranolol. Lancet 1981;317:520-2
81. Rickels K, Schweizer E, Case WR. Withdrawal problems with anti-anxiety drugs: nature and management. In: Tyrer P, editor. Psychopharmacology of anxiety. Oxford University Press; Oxford, UK: 1989. p. 283-92
82. Tyrer P, Owen R, Dawling S. Gradual withdrawal of diazepam after long-term therapy. Lancet 1983;321:1402-6
83. Murphy SM, Tyrer P. A double-blind comparison of the effects of gradual withdrawal of lorazepam, diazepam and bromazepam in benzodiazepine dependence. Br J Psychiatry 1991;158:511-16
84. Fava M, Mulroy R, Alpert J, et al. Emergence of adverse effects following discontinuation of treatment with extended-release venlafaxine. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:1760-2
85. Haddad P. The SSRI discontinuation syndrome. J Psychopharmacol 1998;12: 305-13
86. Rosenbaum JF, Fava M, Hoog SL, et al. Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor discontinuation syndrome: a randomized clinical trial. Biol Psychiatry 1998;44:77-87
87. Nielsen M, Hansen EH, Gøtzsche PC. What is the difference between dependence and withdrawal reactions A comparison of benzodiazepines and selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors. Addiction 2012;107: 900-8
88. American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 5th edition. DSM-5 American Psychiatric Association; Washington, DC, USA: 2013
89. Brady K. Withdrawal or dependence: a matter of context. Addiction 2012;107: 910-11
90. Salzman C. The APA Task Force report on benzodiazepine dependence, toxicity, and abuse. Am J Psychiatry 1991;148:151-2
91. Andersch S, Hetta J. A 15-year follow-up study of patients with panic disorder. Eur Psychiatry 2003;18:401-8
92. Moret C, Isaac M, Briley M. Problems associated with long-term treatment with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. J Psychopharmacol 2009;23:967-74
93. Offidani E, Fava GA, Tomba E, Baldessarini RJ. Excessive mood elevation and behavioral activation with antidepressant treatment of juvenile depressive and anxiety disorders: a systematic review. Psychother Psychosom 2013;82:132-41
94. Dubovsky SL. Clinical guide to psychotropic medications. Norton; New York, NY, USA: 2005
95. Fava GA. Rational use of antidepressant drugs. Psychother Psychosom 2014;83: 197-204
96. Posternak MA, Mueller TI. Assessing the risks and benefits of benzodiazepines for anxiety disorders in patients with a history of substance abuse or dependence. Am J Addict 2001;10:48-68
97. Löw K, Crestani F, Keist R, et al. Molecular and neuronal substrate for the selective attenuation of anxiety. Science 2000;290:131-4
98. Rudolph U, Crestani F, Benke D, et al. Benzodiazepine actions mediated by specific g-aminobutyric acid A receptor subtypes. Nature 1999;401:796-800
99. Tan KR, Brown M, Labouèbe G, et al. Neural bases for addictive properties of benzodiazepines. Nature 2010;463:769-74