Do we really become smarter when our fluid-intelligence test scores improve?

Intelligence

Volumn 48, Issue , 2015, Pages 1-14

  Hayes, Taylor R ^a   Petrov, Alexander A ^a   Sederberg, Per B ^a  

^a OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Cognitive training; Eye movements; Fluid intelligence; Skill acquisition; Strategy

Indexed keywords

EID: 84909942583     PISSN: 01602896     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2014.10.005     Document Type: Article

References (97)

1. Anderson J.R. Skill acquisition: Compilation of weak-method problem solutions. Psychological Review 1987, 94(2):192-210.
2. Anderson J.R. Learning and memory: An integrated approach 2000, John Wiley and Sons, New York. 2nd ed.
3. Anderson M. Cortex forum on the concept of general intelligence in neuropsychology. Cortex 2005, 41(2):99-100.
4. Anderson J.R. How can the human mind occur in the physical universe? 2007, Oxford University Press, New York.
5. Anderson J.R., Betts S., Ferris J.L., Fincham J.M. Neural imaging to track mental states while using an intelligent tutoring system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2010, 107(15):7018-7023.
6. Anderson J.R., Bothell D., Byrne M.D., Douglass S., Lebiere C., Qin Y. An integrated theory of the mind. Psychological Review 2004, 111(4):1036-1060.
7. Bethell-Fox C.E., Lohman D.F., Snow R.E. Adaptive reasoning: Componential and eye movement analysis of geometric analogy performance. Intelligence 1984, 8(3):205-238.
8. Bond L., Harman A.E. Test-taking strategies. Encyclopedia of human intelligence 1994, Vol. 2:1073-1077. MacMillan, New York.
9. Bors D.A., Forrin B. Age, speed of information processing, recall, and fluid intelligence. Intelligence 1995, 20(3):229-248.
10. Bors D.A., Vigneau F. The effect of practice on Raven's advanced progressive matrices. Learning and Individual Differences 2003, 13(4):291-312.
11. Brain sells: Commercialising neuroscience. The Economist 2013, Aug. 10, 56.
12. Buschkuehl M., Jaeggi S.M. Improving intelligence: A literature review. Swiss Medical Weekly 2010, 140(19-20):266-272.
13. Carpenter P.A., Just M.A., Shell P. What one intelligence test measures: A theoretical account of the processing in the Raven Progressive Matrices test. Psychological Review 1990, 97(3):404-431.
14. Carroll J.B. Human cognitive abilities: A survey of factor-analytic studies 1993, Cambridge University Press, New York, NY.
15. Cattell R.B. Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology 1963, 54(1):1-22.
16. Chooi W.T., Thompson L.A. Working memory training does not improve intelligence in healthy young adults. Intelligence 2012, 40:531-542.
17. Colom R., Román F.J., Abad F.J., Shih P.C., Privado J., Froufe M. Adaptive n-back training does not improve fluid intelligence at the construct level: Gains on individual tests suggest that training may enhance visuospatial processing. Intelligence 2013, 41:712-727.
18. Cronbach L.J. The two disciplines of scientific psychology. American Psychologist 1957, 12:671-684.
19. Cronbach L.J., Furby L. How should we measure "change"-Or should we?. Psychological Bulletin 1970, 74(1):68-80.
20. Dayan P. The convergence of TD(λ) for general λ. Machine Learning 1992, 8(3/4):341-362.
21. Dayan P. Improving generalization for temporal difference learning: The successor representation. Neural Computation 1993, 5(4):613-624.
22. Dayan P., Sejnowski T.J. TD(λ) converges with probability 1 (Tech. Rep.) 1993, CACNL, The Salk Institute, San Diego.
23. Explanatory item response models: A generalized linear and nonlinear approach 2004, Springer-Verlag, New York. P. De Boeck, M. Wilson (Eds.).
24. Denney N.W., Heidrich S.M. Training effects on Raven's progressive matrices in young, middle-aged, and elderly adults. Psychology and Aging 1990, 5(1):144-145.
25. How and how much can intelligence be increased? 1982, Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ. D.K. Detterman, R.J. Sternberg (Eds.).
26. Dickens W.T., Flynn J.R. Heritability estimates versus large environmental effects: The IQ paradox resolved. Psychological Review 2001, 108(2):346-369.
27. Duncan J., Seitz R.J., Kolodny J., Bor D., Herzog H., Ahmed A. A neural basis for general intelligence. Science 2000, 289(5478):457-460.
28. Embretson S.E. A multidimensional latent trait model for measuring learning and change. Psychometrika 1991, 56(3):495-515.
29. Everitt B.S., Dunn G. Applied multivariate analysis 2001, Oxford University Press, New York.
30. Frank M.J., Loughry B., O'Reilly R.C. Interactions between frontal cortex and basal ganglia in working memory: A computational model. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience 2001, 1(2):137-160.
31. Fry A.F., Hale S. Relationships among processing speed, working memory, and fluid intelligence in children. Biological Psychology 2000, 54:1-34.
32. Gershman S.J., Moore C.D., Todd M.T., Norman K.A., Sederberg P.B. The successor representation and temporal context. Neural Computation 2012, 24:1553-1568.
33. Goldberger A.S. Structural equation methods in the social sciences. Econometrica 1972, 40:979-1001.
34. Gottfredson L.S. Why g matters: The complexity of everyday life. Intelligence 1997, 24:79-132.
35. Gray J.R., Thompson P.M. Neurobiology of intelligence: Science and ethics. Nature Reviews Neuroscience 2004, 5(6):471-482.
36. Halford G.S., Cowan N., Andrews G. Separating cognitive capacity from knowledge: A new hypothesis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences 2007, 11(6):236-242.
37. Harrison T.L., Shipstead Z., Hicks K.L., Hambrick D.Z., Redick T.S., Engle R.W. Working memory training may increase working memory capacity but not fluid intelligence. Psychological Science 2013, 24(12):2409-2419.
38. Hatze H. Biomedical aspects of a successful motion optimization. Biomechanics V-B 1976, 7-17. University Park Press, Baltimore, MD. P.V. Komi (Ed.).
39. Hayes T.R., Petrov A.A., Sederberg P.B. A novel method for analyzing sequential eye movements reveals strategic influence on Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices. Journal of Vision 2011, 11(10):1-11.
40. Horn W. Leistungsprüfsystem [Performance test system] 1983, Hogrefe, Göttingen. 2nd ed.
41. Hossiep R., Turck D., Hasella M. Bochumer Matrizentest: BOMAT advanced-short version 1999, Hogrefe Publishing, Boston, MA.
42. Howard M.W., Kahana M.J. A distributed representation of temporal context. Journal of Mathematical Psychology 2002, 46(3):269-299.
43. Hurley D. Can you make yourself smarter?. The New York Times Magazine 2012, Apr. 22, 38.
44. Jaakkola T., Jordan M.I., Singh S.P. On the convergence of stochastic iterative dynamic programming algorithms. Neural Computation 1994, 6(6):1185-1201.
45. Jaeggi S.M., Buschkuehl M., Jonides J., Perrig W.J. Improving fluid intelligence with training on working memory. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2008, 105(19):6829-6833.
46. Jaeggi S.M., Buschkuehl M., Jonides J., Shah P. Short- and long-term benefits of cognitive training. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 2011, 108:10081-10086.
47. Jaeggi S.M., Buschkuehl M., Shah P., Jonides J. The role of individual differences in cognitive training and transfer. Memory & Cognition 2014, 42:464-480.
48. Jaeggi S.M., Studer-Luethi B., Buschkuehl M., Su Y.F., Jonides J., Perrig W.J. The relationship between n-back performance and matrix reasoning - implications for training and transfer. Intelligence 2010, 38:625-635.
49. Jensen A.R. The g factor: The science of mental ability 1998, Praeger, London.
50. Jensen A.R. Clocking the mind: Mental chronometry and individual differences 2006, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
51. Jilk D., Lebiere C., O'Reilly R.C., Anderson J.R. SAL: An explicitly pluralistic cognitive architecture. Journal of Experimental & Theoretical Artificial Intelligence 2008, 20(3):197-218.
52. Juvina I., Taatgen N.A. Modeling control strategies in the N-back task. Proceedings of the Eighth International Conference on Cognitive Modeling 2007, 73-78. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Ann Arbor, MI. R.L. Lewis, T.A. Polk, J.E. Laird (Eds.).
53. Kane M.J., Engle R.W. The role of prefrontal cortex in working-memory capacity, executive attention and general fluid intelligence: An individual-differences perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2002, 9:637-671.
54. Kane M.J., Hambrick D.Z., Tuhoski S.W., Wilhelm O., Payne T.W., Engle R.W. The generality of working memory capacity: A latent-variable approach to verbal and visuospatial memory span and reasoning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2004, 133:189-217.
55. Kemeny J.G., Snell J.L. Finite Markov chains 1976, Springer, New York.
56. Kottlors J., Brand D., Ragni M. Modeling behavior of attention-deficit-disorder patients in a N-back task. Proceedings of the Eleventh International Conference on Cognitive Modeling 2012, Universitaetsverlag der TU Berlin, Berlin. N. Ruswinkel, U. Drewitz, H. van Rijn (Eds.).
57. Lee F.J., Anderson J.R. Does learning a complex task have to be complex?: A study in learning decomposition. Cognitive Psychology 2001, 42(3):267-316.
58. Lovett M.C. Choice. The atomic components of thought 1998, 255-296. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, NJ. J.R. Anderson, C. Lebiere (Eds.).
59. Lovett M.C. A strategy-based interpretation of Stroop. Cognitive Science 2005, 29:493-524.
60. Lovett M.C., Daily L.Z., Reder L.M. A source activation theory of working memory: Cross-task prediction of performance in ACT-R. Journal of Cognitive Systems Research 2000, 1(2):99-118.
61. Lovett A., Tomai E., Forbus K., Usher J. Solving geometric analogy problems through two-stage analogical mapping. Cognitive Science 2009, 33(7):1192-1231.
62. Martínez K., Burgaleta M., Román F.J., Escorial S., Shih P.C., Quiroga M.A. Can fluid intelligence be reduced to 'simple' short-term storage?. Intelligence 2011, 39:473-480.
63. Matzen L.E., Benz Z.O., Dixon K.R., Posey J., Kroger J.K., Speed A.E. Recreating Raven's: Software for systematically generating large numbers of Raven-like matrix problems with normed properties. Behavioral Research Methods 2010, 42(2):525-541.
64. McArdle J.J., Nesselroade J.R. Using multivariate data to structure developmental change. Life-span developmental psychology: Methodological contributions 1994, 223-267. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ. S.H. Cohen, H.W. Reese (Eds.).
65. Cognitive strategy research: From basic research to educational applications 1989, Springer. C.B. McCormick, G.E. Miller, M. Pressley (Eds.).
66. Melby-Lervåg M., Hulme C. Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology 2013, 49(2):270-291.
67. Moody D.E. Can intelligence be increased by training on a task of working memory?. Intelligence 2009, 37(4):327-328.
68. Morrison A.B., Chein J.M. Does working memory training work? The promise and challenges of enhancing cognition by training working memory. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2011, 18(1):46-60.
69. Neisser U., Boodoo G., Bouchard T.J., Boykin A.W., Brody N., Ceci S.J. Intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. American Psychologist 1996, 51(2):77-101.
70. Owen A.M., Hampshire A., Grahn J.A., Stenton R., Dajani S., Burns A.S. Putting brain training to the test. Nature 2010, 465(7299):775-778.
71. Pressley M., Woloshyn V., Lysynchuk L.M., Martin V., Wood E., Willoughby T. A primer of research on cognitive strategy instruction: The important issues and how to address them. Educational Psychology Review 1990, 2(1):1-58.
72. Raven J.C., Raven J., Court J.H. Manual for Raven's progressive matrices and vocabulary scales. Section 4: Advanced progressive matrices 1998, Pearson, San Antonio, TX.
73. Redick T.S., Shipstead Z., Harrison T.L., Hicks K.L., Fried D.E., Hambrick D.Z. No evidence of intelligence improvement after working memory training: A randomized, placebo-controlled study. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2012, 142(2):359-379.
74. Ritter S., Anderson J.R., Koedinger K.R., Corbett A. Cognitive tutor: Applied research in mathematics education. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 2007, 14(2):249-255.
75. Salvucci D.D., Taatgen N.A. Threaded cognition: An integrated theory of concurrent multitasking. Psychological Review 2008, 115(1):101-130.
76. Schmiedek F., Lövden M., Lindenberger U. Hundred days of cognitive training enhance broad cognitive abilities in adulthood: Findings from the COGITO study. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience 2010, 2(27):1-10.
77. Schweizer K., Goldhammer F., Rauch W., Moosbrugger H. On the validity of Raven's matrices test: Does spatial ability contribute to performance?. Personality and Individual Differences 2007, 43(8):1998-2010.
78. Sederberg P.B., Howard M.W., Kahana M.J. A context-based theory of recency and contiguity in free recall. Psychological Review 2008, 115(4):893-912.
79. Sheppard L.D., Vernon P.A. Intelligence and speed of information-processing: A review of 50years of research. Personality and Individual Differences 2008, 44:535-551.
80. Shipstead Z., Redick T.S., Engle R.W. Is working memory training effective?. Psychological Bulletin 2012, 138(4):628-654.
81. Spearman C. The abilities of man 1927, Macmillan, New York.
82. SR Research Eyelink 1000 user's manual, version 1.5.2 2010, SR Research Ltd., Mississauga, ON.
83. Stepankova H., Lukavsky J., Buschkuehl M., Kopecek M., Ripova D., Jaeggi S.M. The malleability of working memory and visuospatial skills: A randomized controlled study in older adults. Developmental Psychology 2014, 50(4):1049-1059.
84. Stephenson C.L., Halpern D.F. Improved matrix reasoning is limited to training on tasks with a visuospatial component. Intelligence 2013, 41(5):341-357.
85. Sternberg R.J., Weil E.M. An aptitude×strategy interaction in linear syllogistic reasoning. Journal of Educational Psychology 1980, 72:226-239.
86. Stocco A., Lebiere C., Anderson J.R. Conditional routing of information to the cortex: A model of the basal ganglia's role in cognitive coordination. Psychological Review 2010, 117(2):541-574.
87. Sutton R.S. Learning to predict by the methods of temporal differences. Machine Learning 1988, 3(1):9-44.
88. Taatgen N.A. Learning rules and productions. Encyclopedia of cognitive science 2003, Vol. 2:822-830. MacMillan, London.
89. Taatgen N.A. Modeling parallelization and flexibility improvements in skill acquisition: From dual tasks to complex dynamic skills. Cognitive Science 2005, 29(3):421-455.
90. Taatgen N.A. The nature and transfer of cognitive skills. Psychological Review 2013, 120(3):439-471.
91. Taatgen N.A., Huss D., Dickison D., Anderson J.R. The acquisition of robust and flexible cognitive skills. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 2008, 137(3):548-565.
92. te Nijenhuis J., van Vianen A.E.M., van der Flier H. Score gains on g-loaded tests: No g. Intelligence 2007, 35:283-300.
93. Thompson T.W., Waskom M.L., Garel K.A., Cardenas-Iniguez C., Reynolds G.O., Winter R. Failure of working memory training to enhance cognition or intelligence. PLo S ONE 2013, 8(5):1-15.
94. Vigneau F., Caissie A.F., Bors D.A. Eye-movement analysis demonstrates strategic influences on intelligence. Intelligence 2006, 34(3):261-272.
95. von Bastian C.C., Oberauer K. Distinct transfer effects of training different facets of working memory capacity. Journal of Memory and Language 2013, 69:36-58.
96. White L.M. Temporal difference learning: Eligibility traces and the successor representation for actions. Canada 1995, Unpublished Master's Thesis, Department of Computer Science, University of Toronto.
97. Yung Y., Thissen D., McLeod L.D. On the relationship between the higher-order factor model and the hierarchical factor model. Psychometrika 1999, 64:113-128.