Concurrent fetal exposure to multiple environmental chemicals along the U.S.—mexico border: An exploratory study in brownsville, Texas

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

Volumn 11, Issue 10, 2014, Pages 10165-10181

  Sexton, Ken ^a   Salinas, Jennifer J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

Author keywords

Biomarkers; Chemical mixtures; Cord blood; Fetal exposure; Health disparities; Hispanic health; Organochlorine pesticides; PAHs; PCBs

Indexed keywords

1 METHYLNAPHTHALENE; 2 METHYLNAPHTHALENE; ACENAPHTHENE DERIVATIVE; ACENAPHTHYLENE; ALDRIN; ANTHRACENE DERIVATIVE; BENZOTHIOPHENE DERIVATIVE; BENZO[A]PYRENE; BENZO[B]FLUORANTHENE; BENZO[GHI]PERYLENE; BENZO[K]FLUORANTHENE; BENZ[A]ANTHRACENE; BIPHENYL; CHLORDANE; CHLORPHENOTANE; CHRYSENE DERIVATIVE; DIBENZOTHIOPHENE DERIVATIVE; DIBENZ[A,H]ANTHRACENE; ENDRIN; FLUORENE DERIVATIVE; INDENO[1,2,3 CD]PYRENE; LINDANE; NAPHTHALENE; NAPHTHALENE DERIVATIVE; ORGANOCHLORINE PESTICIDE; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYL DERIVATIVE; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON DERIVATIVE; PYRENE DERIVATIVE; UNINDEXED DRUG; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; CHLORINATED HYDROCARBON; PESTICIDE; POLLUTANT; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON;

BIOMARKER; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); HEALTH IMPACT; MATERNAL HEALTH; ORGANOCHLORINE; PAH; PCB; PESTICIDE; POLLUTION EXPOSURE; PUBLIC HEALTH;

ADULT; ARTICLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CONCENTRATION (PARAMETERS); CONTROLLED STUDY; CORRELATION ANALYSIS; DIABETES MELLITUS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; EXPLORATORY RESEARCH; FEMALE; FETUS; HISPANIC; HUMAN; MATERNAL BLOOD; MEXICO; OBESITY; PREGNANT WOMAN; UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD; UNITED STATES; ADOLESCENT; BLOOD; CHEMISTRY; FETUS BLOOD; MATERNAL EXPOSURE; METABOLISM; POLLUTANT; PREGNANCY; SOCIOECONOMICS; STATISTICS AND NUMERICAL DATA; TEXAS;

BROWNSVILLE; MEXICO [NORTH AMERICA]; RIO GRANDE VALLEY; TEXAS; UNITED STATES;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BIOMARKERS; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FEMALE; FETAL BLOOD; HISPANIC AMERICANS; HUMANS; HYDROCARBONS, CHLORINATED; MATERNAL EXPOSURE; PESTICIDES; POLYCHLORINATED BIPHENYLS; POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS, AROMATIC; PREGNANCY; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS; TEXAS;

EID: 84908343208     PISSN: 16617827     EISSN: 16604601     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.3390/ijerph111010165     Document Type: Article

References (77)

1. 1. Makri, A.; Goveia, M.; Balbus, J.; Parkin, R. Children’s susceptibility to chemicals: A review of developmental stage. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 2004, 7, 417–435.
2. 2. Barr, D.B.; Bishop, A.; Needham, L.L. Concentrations of xenobiotic chemicals in the maternal-fetal unit. Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 23, 260–266.
3. 3. Heindel, J.J. Role of exposure to environmental chemicals in the developmental basis of disease and dysfunction. Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 23, 257–259.
4. 4. Boekelheide, K.; Blumber, B.; Chapin, R.E.; Cote, I.; Graziano, J.H.; Janesick, A.; Lane, R.; Lillycrop, K.; Myatt, L.; States, J.C., et al. Predicting later-life outcomes of early-life exposures. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 1353–1361.
5. 5. Mendez, M.A.; Garcia-Esteban, R.; Guxens, M.; Vrijheid, M.; Kogevinas, M.; Goni, F.; Fochs, S.; Sunyer, J. Prenatal organochlorine compound exposure, rapid weight gain, and overweight in infancy. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119, 272–278.
6. 6. Cupul-Uicab, L.A.; Klebanoff, M.A.; Brock, J.W.; Longnecker, M.P. Prenatal exposure to persistent organochlorines and childhood obesity in the U.S. Collaborative Prenatal Project. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 1103–1109.
7. 7. Sexton, K.; Salinas, J.J.; MacDonald, T.J.; Gowen, R.M.Z.; Miller, R.P.; McCormick, J.B.; Fisher-Hoch, S.P. Biomarkers of maternal and fetal exposure to organochlorine pesticides in pregnant Hispanic women from Brownsville, Texas. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2013, 10, 237–248.
8. 8. Torres-Sanchez, L.; Schnass, L.; Rothenberg, S.J.; Cebrian, M.E.; Osorio-Valencia, E.; Hernandez, M.C.; García-Hernández, R.M.; López-Carrillo, L. Prenatal p,p’-DDE exposure and neurodevelopment among children 3.5–5 years of age. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 263–268.
9. 9. Warner, M.; Schall, R.A.; Harley, K.G.; Bradman, A.; Barr, D.; Eskenazi, B. In utero DDT and DDE exposure and obesity status of 7-year-old Mexican-American children in the CHAMACOS cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 631–636.
10. 10. Hansen, S.; Strom, M.; Olsen, S.F.; Malova, E.; Rantakokko, P.; Kiviranta, H.; Rytter, D.; Bech, B.H.; Hansen, L.V.; Halldorsson, T.I. Maternal concentrations of persistent organochlorine pollutants and the risk of asthma in offspring: Results from a prospective cohort with 20 years of follow-up. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 122, 93–99.
11. 11. Soechitram, S.D.; Athanasiadou, M.; Havander, L.; Bergman, A.; Sauer, P.J.J. Fetal exposure to PCBs and their hydroxylated metabolites in a Dutch cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 2004, 112, 1208–2012.
12. 12. Govarts, E.; Nieuwenhuijsen, M.; Schoeters, G.; Ballestar, F.; Bloemen, K.; de Boer, M.; Chevrier, C.; Eggesbø, M.; Guxens, M.; Krämer, U. Birth weight and prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE): A meta-analysis within 12 European birth cohorts. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 162–170.
13. 13. Sexton, K.; Salinas, J.J.; MacDonald, T.J.; Gowen, R.M.Z.; Miller, R.P.; McCormick, J.B.; Fisher-Hoch, S.P. Biomarker measurements of prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in umbilical cord blood from postpartum Hispanic women in Brownsville, Texas. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part A 2013, 76, 1225–1235.
14. 14. Vafeiadi, M.; Agramunt, S.; Papadopoulou, E.; Besselink, H.; Mathianaki, K.; Karakosta, P.; Spanaki, A.; Koutis, A.; Chatzi, L. In utero exposure to dioxins and dioxin-like compounds and anogenital distance in newborns and infants. Environ. Health Perspect. 2013, 121, 125–130.
15. 15. Choi, H.; Jedrychowski, W.; Spengler, J.; Camann, D.E.; Whyatt, R.M.; Rauth, V.; Spanaki, A.; Koutis, A.; Chatzi, L. International studies of prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and fetal growth. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 1744–1750.
16. 16. Tang, D.; Li, T.; Liu, J.J.; Chen, Y.; Qu, L.; Perera, F. PAH-DNA adducts in cord blood and fetal and child development in a Chinese cohort. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 112, 626–630.
17. 17. Edwards, S.C.; Jedrychowski, W.; Burscher, M.; Camann, D.E.; Whyatt, R.M.; Mroz, E.; Flak, E.; Li, Z.; Wang, S.; Rauh, V. Prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and children’s intelligence at 5 years of age in a prospective cohort study in Poland. Environ. Health Perspect. 2010, 118, 1326–1331.
18. 18. Sexton, K.; Salinas, J.J.; MacDonald, T.J.; Gowen, R.M.Z.; Miller, R.P.; McCormick, J.B.; Fisher-Hoch, S.P. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in maternal and umbilical cord blood from pregnant Hispanic women living in Brownsville, Texas. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3365–3379.
19. 19. Herbstman, J.B.; Tang, D.; Zhu, D.; Qu, D.; Sjodin, A.; Li, Z.; Camann, D.; Perera, F.P. Prenatal exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, benzo[a]pyrene-DNA adducts, and genomic DNA methylation in cord blood. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 733–738.
20. 20. Perera, F.P.; Tang, D.; Wang, S.; Vishnevetsky, J.; Zhang, B.; Diaz, D.; Camann, D.; Rauh, V. Prenatal polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) exposure and child behavior at age 6–7 years. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 921–926.
21. 21. Needham, L.L.; Sexton, K. Assessing children’s exposure to hazardous environmental chemicals: An overview of selected research challenges and complexities. J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 2000, 10, 611–629.
22. 22. Barr, D.B.; Wang, R.Y.; Needham, L.L. Biologic monitoring of exposure to environmental chemicals throughout the life stages: Requirements and issues for consideration for the National Children’s Study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1083–1091.
23. 23. Needham, L.L.; Ozkaynak, H.; Whyatt, R.M.; Barr, D.B.; Wang, R.Y.; Naeher, L.; Akland, G.; Bahadori, T.; Bradman, A.; Fortmann, R. Exposure assessment in the National Children’s Study: Introduction. Environ. Health Perspect. 2005, 113, 1076–1082.
24. 24. Wigle, D.T.; Arbuckle, T.E.; Walker, M.; Wade, M.G.; Liu, S.; Krewski, D. Environmental hazards: Evidence for effects on child health. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health Part B 2007, 10, 3–39.
25. 25. Woodruff, T.J.; Zota, A.R.; Schwartz, J.M. Environmental chemicals in pregnant women in the United States: NHANES 2003–2004. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119, 878–885.
26. 26. Braun, J.M.; Kalkbrenner, A.E.; Just, A.C.; Yolton, K.; Calafat, A.M.; Sjodin, A.; Hauser, R.; Webster, G.M.; Chen, A.; Lanphear, B.P. Gestational exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals and reciprocal social, repetitive, and stereotypic behaviors in 4- and 5-year-old children: The HOME study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2014, 112, 513–520.
27. 27. Evans, A.M.; Rice, G.E.; Teuschler, L.K.; Wright, J.M. Joint exposure to chemical and nonchemical neurodevelopmental stressors in U.S. women of reproductive age. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2014, 11, 4384–4401.
28. 28. Moi, C.; Komiyama, M.; Adachi, T.; Sakurai, K.; Nishimura, D.; Takashima, K.; Todaka, E. Application of toxicogenomic analysis to risk assessment of delayed long-term effects of multiple chemicals, including endocrine disrupters in human fetuses. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 803–809.
29. 29. Morello-Frosch, R.; Shenassa, E.D. The environmental “riskscape” and social inequality: Implications for explaining maternal and child health disparities. Environ. Health Perspect. 2006, 114, 1150–1153.
30. 30. Sexton, K.; Hattis, D. Assessing cumulative health risks from exposure to environmental mixtures—Three fundamental questions. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 825–832.
31. 31. Bellingham, M.; Fowler, P.A.; Amezaga, M.R.; Rhind, S.M.; Cotinot, C.; Mandon-Pepin, B.; Sharpe, R.M.; Evans, N.P. Exposure to a complex cocktail of environmental endocrine-disrupting compounds disturbs the Kisspeptin/GPR54 system in ovine hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 1556–1562.
32. 32. Howd, R.A. Considering changes in exposure and sensitivity in an early life cumulative risk assessment. Int. J. Toxicol. 2010, 29, 71–77.
33. 33. Bellinger, D.C. A strategy for comparing the contributions of environmental chemicals and other risk factors to neurodevelopment of children. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 501–507.
34. 34. Unuvar, T.; Buyukgebiz, A. Fetal and neonatal endocrine disrupters. J. Clin. Res. Pediatr. Endocrinol. 2012, 4, 51–60.
35. 35. Schmidt, C.W. Bordering on environmental disaster. Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, A308–A315.
36. 36. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Border 2012: U.S.-Mexico Environmental Program Indicators Report 2005; EPA-160-R-06-001; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2006.
37. 37. Merem, E.C.; Yerramilli, S.; Twumasi, Y.A.; Wesley, J.M.; Robinson, B.; Richardson, C. The application of GIS in the analysis of the impacts of human activities on South Texas watersheds. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 2418–2446.
38. 38. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Border 2020: U.S.-Mexico Environmental Program; EPA-160-R-12-001; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2012.
39. 39. Pan American Health Organization. Transnational Cooperation in Environmental Health along the U.S.—Mexico Border; Pan American Health Organization: El Paso, TX, USA, 2013.
40. 40. Wilson Center. The State of the Border Report: A Comprehensive Analysis of the U.S.-Mexico Border; Wilson Center: Washington, DC, USA, 2013.
41. 41. Mier, N.; Ory, M.G.; Zhan, D.; Conkling, M.; Sharkey, J.R.; Burdine, J.N. Health-related quality of life among Mexican Americans living in colonias at the Texas-Mexico Border. Soc. Sci. Med. 2008, 66, 1760–1771.
42. 42. Ramos, I.N.; Davis, L.B.; He, Q.; May, M.; Ramos, K.S. Environmental risk factors of disease in the Cameron Park colonia, a Hispanic community along the Texas-Mexico Border. J. Immigr. Minor. Health 2008, 10, 345–351.
43. 43. National Rural Health Association. Addressing the Health Care Needs in the U.S.-Mexico Border Region; Policy Statement Adopted January 2010; National Rural Health Association: Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
44. 44. Fisher-Hoch, S.P.; Rentfro, A.R.; Salinas, J.J.; Perez, A.; Brown, H.S.; Reininger, B.M.; Restrepo, B.I.; Wilson, J.G.; Hossain, M.M.; Rahbar, M.H. Socioeconomic status and prevalence of obesity and diabetes in a Mexican American Community, Cameron County, Texas, 2004–2007. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2010, 7, 1–10.
45. 45. Texas Department of State Health Services. Health Status Overview of the Texas-Mexico Border-Health Service Region 8; Ledezma, E., Ed.; Office of the Border Health Coordinator: San Antonio, TX, USA, 2011.
46. 46. Fisher-Hoch, S.P.; Vatcheva, K.P.; Laing, S.T.; Hossain, M.M.; Rahbar, M.H.; Hanis, C.L.; Brown, H.S., III; Rentfro, A.R.; Reininger, B.M.; McCormick, J.B. Missed opportunities for diagnosis and treatment of diabetes, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia in a Mexican American population, Cameron County Hispanic Cohort, 2003–2008. Prev. Chronic Dis. 2012, 9, 1–11.
47. U.S. Census Bureau. American Community Service Survey. Available online: www.census.gov (accessed on 25 January 2011).
48. 48. Price, R.B. Cumulative Exposure to Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals: A Study of Pregnant Women in the Lower Rio Grande Valley. Master’s Thesis, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA, 2007.
49. 49. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Solid Waste. Test Methods for Evaluating Solid Waste, Physical/Chemical Methods; Environmental Protection Agency: Washington, DC, USA, 2011.
50. 50. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Environmental Health. Fourth National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals; National Center for Environmental Health: Atlanta, GA, USA. 2009.
51. 51. Grineski, S. Characterizing children’s asthma hospitalizations on the Texas-Mexico border. J. Asthma 2007, 44, 783–787.
52. Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. Adopted in 2001, Entered into Force in 2004, Amended in 2009. Available online: http://chm.pops.int (accessed on 12 December 2012).
53. 53. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Integrated Risk Information System; U.S. EPA: Washington, DC, USA 2010.
54. National Toxicology Program (NTP), National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA. Available online: http://ntp.niehs.nih.gov (accessed on 4 April 2011).
55. 55. Eskenazi, B.; Rosas, L.G.; Marks, A.R.; Bradman, A.; Harley, K.; Holland, N.; Johnson, C.; Fenster, L.; Barr, D.B. Pesticide toxicity and the developing brain. Basic Clin. Pharmaco. Toxicol. 2008, 102, 228–236.
56. 56. Eskenazi, B.; Marks, A.R.; Bradman, A.; Fenster, L.; Johnson, C.; Barr, D.B.; Jewell, N.P. In utero exposure to dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (DDE) and neurodevelopment among young Mexican American children. Pediatrics 2006, 118, 233–241.
57. 57. Sagiv, S.K.; Nugent, J.K.; Brazelton, T.B.; Choi, A.L.; Tolbert, P.E.; Altshul, L.M.; Korrick, S.A. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and measures of behavior in infancy using the Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS). Environ. Health Perspect. 2008, 116, 666–673.
58. 58. Sagiv, S.K.; Tolbert, P.E.; Altshul, L.M.; Korrick, S.A. Organochlorine exposures during pregnancy and infant size at birth. Epidemiology 2007, 18, 120–129.
59. 59. Samra, N.M.; Selim, A.A. Organochlorine pesticides concentrations in maternal serum and their effects on umbilical cord serum pesticides concentrations, neonatal birth weight and gestational age. Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. 2009, 3, 1972–1983.
60. 60. Thayer, K.A.; Heindel, J.J.; Bucher, J.R.; Gallo, M.A. Role of environmental chemicals in diabetes and obesity: A National Toxicology Program workshop review. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, 779–789.
61. 61. Holtcamp, W. Obesogens: An environmental link to obesity. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 120, A63–A68.
62. 62. Newbold, R.R.; Padilla-Banks, E.; Snyder, R.J.; Phillips, T.M.; Jefferson, W.N. Developmental exposure to endocrine disruptors and the obesity epidemic. Reprod. Toxicol. 2007, 23, 290–296.
63. 63. Merrill, M.L.; Birnbaum, L.S. Childhood obesity and environmental chemicals. Mt. Sinai J. Med. 2011, 78, 22–48.
64. 64. Boucher, O.; Muckle, G.; Bastien, C.H. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls: A neuropsychologic analysis. Environ. Health Perspect. 2009, 117, 7–16.
65. 65. Sagiv, S.K.; Thurston, S.W.; Bellinger, D.C.; Tolbert, P.E.; Altshul, L.M.; Korrick, S.A. Prenatal organochlorine exposure and behaviors associated with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in school-aged children. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2010, 171, 593–601.
66. 66. Schantz, S.L.; Widholm, J.J.; Rice, D.C. Effects of PCB exposure on neuropsychological function in children. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 357–376.
67. 67. Weisglas-Kuperus, N. Neurodevelopmental, immunological, and endocrinological indices of perinatal human exposure to PCBs and dioxins. Chemosphere 1998, 37, 1845–1853.
68. 68. Huisman, M.; Koopman-Esseboom, C.; Fidler, V.; Hadders-Algra, M.; van der Paauw, C.; Tuinstra, L.G.; Weisglas-Kuperus, N.; Sauer, P.J.; Touwen, B.C.; Boersma, E.R. Perinatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins and its effect on neonatal neurologic development. Early Hum. Dev. 1995, 41, 111–127.
69. 69. Huisman, M; Koopman-Esseboom, C.; Lanting, C.I.; van der Paauw, D.G.; Tuinstra, L.G.; Fidler, V.; Weisglas-Kuperus, N.; Sauer, P.J.; Boersma, E.R.; Touwen, B.C. Neurologic condition in 18-month-old children perinatally exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins. Early Hum. Dev. 1995, 43, 165–176.
70. 70. Patandin, S.; Koopman-Esseboom, C.; de Ridder, M.A.; Weisglas-Kuperus, N.; Sauer, P.J.J. Effects of environmental exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and dioxins on birth size and growth in Dutch children. Pediatr. Res. 1998, 44, 538–545.
71. 71. Rylander, L.; Stroemberg, U.; Hagmar, L. Dietary intake of fish contaminated with persistent organochlorine compounds in relation to low birth weight. Scand. J. Work 1996, 22, 260–266.
72. 72. Chevrier, J.; Eskenazi, B.; Bradman, A.; Fenster, L.; Barr, D.B. Associations between prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and neonatal thyroid-stimulating hormone levels in a Mexican-American population, Salinas Valley, California. Environ. Health Perspect. 2007, 115, 1490–1496.
73. 73. Chervier, J.; Eskenazi, B.; Holland, N.; Bradman, A.; Barr, D.B. Effects of exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls and organochlorine pesticides on thyroid function during pregnancy. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2008, 168, 298–310.
74. 74. Elobeid, M.A.; Allison, D.B. Putative environmental-endocrine disruptors and obesity: A review. Diabetes Obes. 2008, 15, 403–408.
75. 75. Valvi, K.; Mendez, M.A.; Martinez, D.; Grimalt, J.L.; Torrent, M.; Sunyer, J.; Vrijheid, M. Prenatal concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls, DDE, and DDT and overweight children: A prospective birth cohort study. Environ. Health Perspect. 2012, 210, 451–457.
76. 76. Li, N.; Hao, M.; Phalen, R.F.; Hinds, W.C.; Nel, A.E. Particulate air pollutants and asthma. A paradigm for the role of oxidative stress in PM-induced adverse health effects. Clin. Innumol. 2003, 109, 250–265.
77. 77. Perera, F.P.; Rauh, V.; Tsai, W.; Kinney, P.; Camann, D.; Barr, D.; Bernert, T.; Garfinkel, R.; Tu, Y.H.; Diaz, D. Effects of transplacental exposure to environmental pollutants on birth outcomes in a multiethnic population. Environ. Health Perspect. 2003, 111, 201–205.