Resistance to "last resort" antibiotics in gram-positive cocci: The post-vancomycin era;Resistencia a antibióticos de última línea en cocos gram positivos: La era posterior a la vancomicina

Biomedica

Volumn 34, Issue SUPPL.1, 2014, Pages 191-208

  Rincón, Sandra ^a   Panesso, Diana ^a,b   Díaz, Lorena ^a   Carvajal, Lina P ^a   Reyes, Jinnethe ^a,b   Munita, José M ^b,c   Arias, César A ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSIDAD EL BOSQUE   (Colombia)

^b UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL SCHOOL   (United States)

^c UNIVERSIDAD DEL DESARROLLO   (Chile)

Author keywords

Bacterias gram positivas; Cefalosporinas; Daptomicina; Farmacorresistencia microbiana; Terapias complementarias; Vancomicina

Indexed keywords

ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BACTERIAL PROTEIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; DAPTOMYCIN; MINOCYCLINE; NEW DRUG; TIGECYCLINE; VANCOMYCIN;

ANALOGS AND DERIVATIVES; BACTERIAL GENE; CLASSIFICATION; DRUG EFFECTS; GENETICS; GRAM POSITIVE COCCI; GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; HUMAN; METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MICROBIOLOGY; MULTIDRUG RESISTANCE; PHYSIOLOGY; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; BACTERIAL PROTEINS; CEPHALOSPORINS; DAPTOMYCIN; DRUG RESISTANCE, MULTIPLE, BACTERIAL; DRUGS, INVESTIGATIONAL; GENES, BACTERIAL; GRAM-POSITIVE BACTERIAL INFECTIONS; GRAM-POSITIVE COCCI; HUMANS; METHICILLIN-RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; MINOCYCLINE; STAPHYLOCOCCAL INFECTIONS; VANCOMYCIN;

METHICILLIN RESISTANT STAPHYLOCOCCUS AUREUS; POSIBACTERIA;

EID: 84907350179     PISSN: 01204157     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v34i0.2210     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Woodfor N, Livermore DM. Infections caused by Gram-positive bacteria: A review of the global challenge. J Infect. 2009;59(Supl.1):S4-S16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(09)60003-7
2. Livermore DM. Has the era of untreatable infections arrived? J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64(Supl.1):i29-36. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkp255
3. Arias CA, Murray BE. Antibiotic-resistant bugs in the 21st century: A clinical super-challenge. N Engl J Med. 2009; 360:439-43. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp0804651
4. Peterson LR. Bad bugs, no drugs: No ESCAPE revisited. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:992-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/605539
5. Chambers HF, Deleo FR. Waves of resistance: Staphyl-ococcus aureus in the antibiotic era. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2009;7:629-41. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2200
6. Reyes J, Rincón S, Díaz L, Panesso D, Contreras GA, Zurita J, et al. Dissemination of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus USA300 sequence type 8 lineage in Latin America. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49:1861-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/648426
7. Arias CA, Rincón S, Chowdhury S, Martínez E, Coronell W, Reyes J, et al. MRSA USA300 clone and VREF: A U.S.-Colombian connection? N Engl J Med. 2008;359:2177-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc0804021
8. van Hal SJ, Fowler VG Jr. Is it time to replace vancomycin in the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections? Clin Infect Dis. 2013;56:1779-88. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cit178
9. Kollef MH. Limitations of vancomycin in the management of resistant staphylococcal infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2007; 45:S191-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/519470
10. Micek ST. Alternatives to vancomycin for the treatment of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;45:S184-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/519471
11. Deresinski S. Counterpoint: Vancomycin and Staphylococcus aureus- an antibiotic enters obsolescence. Clin Infect Dis. 2007;44:1543-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/518452
12. van Hal SJ, Lodise TP, Paterson DL. The clinical signif-icance of vancomycin minimum inhibitory concentration in Staphylococcus aureus infections: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Infect Dis. 2012;54:755-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir935
13. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute. Performance standards for antimicrobial susceptibility testing twenty-first informational supplement M100-S21. Wayne, PA: CLSI; 2012.
14. Hiramatsu K, Aritaka N Hanaki H, Kawasaki S, Hosoda Y, Hori S, et al. Dissemination in Japanese hospitals of strains of Staphylococcus aureus heterogeneously resistant to vancomycin. Lancet. 1997;350:1670-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)07324-8
15. Howden BP, Davies JK, Johnson PD, Stinear TP, Grayson ML. Reduced vancomycin susceptibility in Staphylococcus aureus, including vancomycin-intermediate and hetero-geneous vancomycin-intermediate strains: Resistance mechanisms, laboratory detection, and clinical implications. Clin Microbiol Rev. 2010;23:99-139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00042-09
16. Hiramatsu K, Hanaki H, Ino T, Yabuta K, Oguri T, Tenover FC. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strain with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. J Antimicrob Chemother. 1997;40:135-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/40.1.135
17. Fridkin S, Hageman KJ, McDougal LK, Mohammed J, Jarvis WR, Perl TM, et al. Epidemiological and microbiological characterization of infections caused by Staphylococcus aureus with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin, United States, 1997-2001. Clin Infect Dis. 2003;36:429-39. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/346207
18. Howden BP, Ward PB, Charles PG, Korman TM, Fuller A, duCros P, et al. Treatment outcomes for serious infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus with reduced vancomycin susceptibility. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:521-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/381202
19. Charles PG, Ward PB, Johnson PD, Howden PB, Grayson ML. Clinical features associated with bacteremia due to heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis. 2004;38:448-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/381093
20. Hafer C, Lin Y, Kornblum J, Lowy FD, Uhlemann AC. Contribution of selected gene mutations to resistance in clinical isolates of vancomycin-intermediate Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:5845-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01139-12
21. Hanaki H, Kuwahara-Arai K, Boyle-Vavra S, Daum RS, Labischinski H, Hiramatsu K. Activated cell-wall synthesis is associated with vancomycin resistance in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical strains Mu3 and Mu50. J Antimicrob Chemother 1998;42:199-209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/42.2.199
22. Cui L, Ma X, Sato K, Okuma K, Tenover FC, Mamizuka EM, et al. Cell wall thickening is a common feature of vancomycin resistance in Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2003;41:5-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.41.1.5-14.2003
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Staphyl-ococcus aureus resistant to vancomycin-United States, 2002. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2002;51:565-7.
24. Chang S, Sievert DM, Hageman JC, Boulton ML, Tenover FC, Downes FP, et al. Infection with vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus containing the vanA resistance gene. N Engl J Med. 2003;348:1342-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa025025
25. Sievert DM, Rudrik JT, Patel JB, McDonald LC, Wilkins MJ, Hageman JCN. Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the United States, 2002-2006. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46:668-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/527392
26. Aligholi M, Emaneini M, Jabalameli F, Shahsavan S, Dabiri H, Sedaght H. Emergence of high-level vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the Imam Khomeini Hospital in Tehran. Med Princ Pract. 2008;17:432-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1159/000141513
27. Tiwari HK, Sen MR. Emergence of vancomycin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (VRSA) from a tertiary care hospital from northern part of India. BMC Infect Dis. 2006;6:156. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2334-6-156
28. Saha B, Singh AK, Ghosh A, Bal M. Identification and characterization of a vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolated from Kolkata (South Asia). J Med Microbiol. 2008;57:72-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1099/jmm.0.47144-0
29. Weigel LM, Clewell DB, Gill SR, Clark NC, McDougal LK, Flannagan SE. Genetic analysis of a high-level vancomycin-resistant isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Science. 2003:28;302:1569-71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1090956
30. Kos VN, Desjardins CA, Griggs A, Cerqueira G, Van Tonder A, Holden MT, et al. Comparative genomics of vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains and their positions within the clade most commonly associated with methicillin-resistant S. aureus hospital-acquired infection in the United States. MBio.2012;3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00112-12
31. Tenover FC, Goering RV. Methicillin-resistant Staphyl-ococcus aureus strain USA300: Origin and epidemiology. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2009;64:441-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkp241
32. Arias CA, Murray BE. The rise of the Enterococcus: Beyond vancomycin resistance. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2012;10:266-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2761
33. Arias CA, Murray BE. Emergence and management of drug-resistant enterococcal infections. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther. 2008;6:637-55. http://dx.doi.org/0.1586/14787210.6.5.637
34. Galloway-Peña JR, Nallapareddy SR, Arias CA, Eliopoulos GM, Murray BE. Analysis of clonality and antibiotic resistance among early clinical isolates of Enterococcus faecium in the United States. J Infect Dis. 2009;200:1566-73. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/644790.
35. de Been M, van Schaik W, Cheng L, Corander J, Willems R. Recent recombination events in the core genome are associated with adaptive evolution in Enterococcus faecium. Genome Biol Evol. 2013;5:1524-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gbe/evt111
36. Lebreton F, van Schaik W, McGuire AM, Godfrey P, Griggs A, Mazumdar V, et al. Emergence of epidemic multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecium from animal and commensal strains. MBio.2013;4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00534-13
37. Freire-Moran L, Aronsson B, Manz C, Gyssens IC, So AD, ECDC-EMA Working Group, et al. Critical shortage of new antibiotics in development against multidrug-resistant bacteria - Time to react is now. Drug Resist Updat. 2011;14:118-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.drup.2011.02.003
38. Eliopoulos GM. Microbiology of drugs for treating multiple drug-resistant Gram-positive bacteria. J Infect. 2009;59:S17-24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0163-4453(09)60004-9
39. Pérez F, Salata RA, Bonomo RA. Current and novel antibiotics against resistant Gram-positive bacteria. Infect Drug Resist. 2008;1:27-44.
40. Senior K. FDA approves first drug in new class of antibiotics. Lancet. 2000;355:1523. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02173-5
41. Brickner SJ, Barbachyn MR, Hutchinson DK, Manninen PR. Linezolid (ZYVOX), the first member of a completely new class of antibacterial agents for treatment of serious Gram-positive infections. J Med Chem. 2008;51:1981-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jm800038g
42. Wilson DN, Schluenzen F, Harms JM, Starosta AL, Connell SR, Fucini P. The oxazolidinone antibiotics perturb the ribosomal peptidyl-transferase center and effect tRNA positioning. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008;105:13339-44. http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0804276105
43. Tsiodras S, Gold HS, Sakoulas G, Eliopoulos GM, Wennersten C, Venkataraman L, et al. Linezolid resist-ance in a clinical isolate of Staphylococcus aureus. Lancet. 2001;358:207-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(01)05410-1
44. Balode A, Punda-Polić V, Dowzicky MJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria collected from countries in Eastern Europe: Results from the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial (T.E.S.T.) 2004-2010. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2013;41:527-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2013.02.022
45. Flamm RK, Farrell DJ, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Sader HS, Jones RN. LEADER Surveillance program results for 2010: An activity and spectrum analysis of linezolid using 6801 clinical isolates from the United States (61 medical centers). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2012;74:54-61. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2012.05.012
46. Flamm RK, Mendes RE, Ross JE, Sader HS, Jones RN. An international activity and spectrum analysis of linezolid: ZAAPS Program results for 2011. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;76:206-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.01.025
47. Sader HS, Flamm RK, Jones RN. Antimicrobial activity of daptomycin tested against Gram-positive pathogens collected in Europe, Latin America, and selected countries in the Asia-Pacific Region (2011). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;75;417-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.01.001
48. Zhanel GG, Adam HJ, Baxter MR, Fuller J, Nichol KA, Denisuik AJ, et al. Anti-microbial susceptibility of 22746 pathogens from Canadian hospitals: Results of the CANWARD 2007-11 study. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013;68:i7-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkt022
49. Locke JB, Hilgers M, Shaw KJ. Mutations in ribosomal protein L3 are associated with oxazolidinone resistance in staphylococci of clinical origin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:5275-8 http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01032-09
50. Mendes RE, Deshpande LM, Farrell DJ, Spanu T, Fadda G, Jones RN. Assessment of linezolid resistance mechanisms among Staphylococcus epidermidis causing bacteraemia in Rome, Italy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65:2329-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkq331
51. Toh SM, Xiong L, Arias CA, Villegas MV, Lolans K, Quinn J, et al. Acquisition of a natural resistance gene renders a clinical strain of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus resistant to the synthetic antibiotic linezolid. Mol Microbiol. 2007;64:1506-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2007.05744.x
52. Long KS, Vester B. Resistance to linezolid caused by modifications at its binding site on the ribosome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:603-12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.05702-11
53. Besier S, Ludwig A, Zande, J, Brade V, Wichelhaus TA. Linezolid resistance in Staphylococcus aureus: Gene dosage effect, stability, fitness costs, and cross-resistances. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:1570-2. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01098-07
54. Burleson BS, Ritchie DJ, Micek ST, Dunne WM. Enterococcus faecalis resistant to linezolid: Case series and review of the literature. Pharmacotherapy. 2004;24:1225-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1592/phco.24.13.1225.38086
55. Hill RL, Kearns AM, Nash J, North SE, Pike R, Newson T, et al. Linezolid-resistant ST36 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus associated with prolonged linezolid treatment in two pediatric cystic fibrosis patients. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2010;65:442-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkp494
56. Schwarz S, Werckenthin C, Kehrenberg C. Identification of a plasmid-borne chloramphenicol-florfenicol resistance gene in Staphylococcus sciuri. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2000;44:2530-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.44.9.2530-2533.2000
57. Kehrenberg C, Ojo KK, Schwarz S. Nucleotide sequence and organization of the multiresistance plasmid pSCFS1 from Staphylococcus sciuri. J Antimicrob Chemother 2004; 54:936-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkh457
58. Kehrenberg C, Schwarz S. Distribution of florfenicol resistance genes fexA and cfr among chloramphenicol-resistant Staphylococcus isolates. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;50:1156-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.50.4.1156-1163.2006
59. Kehrenberg C, Schwarz S. fexA, a novel Staphylococcus lentus gene encoding resistance to florfenicol and chloramphenicol. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2004;48: 615-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.48.2.615-618.2004
60. Arias CA, Vallejo M, Reyes J, Panesso D, Moreno J, Castañeda E, et al. Clinical and microbiological aspects of linezolid resistance mediated by the cfr gene encoding a 23S rRNA methyltransferase. J Clin Microbiol. 2008;46:892-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.01886-07
61. Smith LK, Mankin AS. Transcriptional and translational control of the mlr operon, which confers resistance to seven classes of protein synthesis inhibitors. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;5:1703-812. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01583-07
62. Mendes RE, Deshpande LM, Castanheira M, DiPersio J, Saubolle MA, Jones RN. First report of cfr-mediated resistance to linezolid in human staphylococcal clinical isolates recovered in the United States. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:2244-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00231-08
63. Morales G, Picazo JJ, Baos E, Candel FJ, Arribi A, Peláez B, et al. Resistance to linezolid is mediated by the cfr gene in the first report of an outbreak of linezolid-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infec. Dis. 2010;50:821-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/650574
64. Locke JB, Morales G, Hilgers M, GC K, Rahawi S, José Picazo J, Shaw K, et al. Elevated linezolid resistance in clinical cfr-Positive Staphylococcus aureus isolates is associated with co-occurring mutations in ribosomal protein L3. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010;5:5352-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00714-10
65. Mendes RE, Deshpande L, Rodríguez-Noriega E, Ross JE, Jones RN, Morfín-Otero R. First report of Staphylococcal clinical isolates in Mexico with linezolid resistance caused by cfr: evidence of in vivo cfr mobilization. J Clin Microbiol. 2010;48:3041-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00880-10
66. Shore AC, Brennan OM, Ehricht R, Monecke S, Schwarz S, Slickers P, et al. Identification and characterization of the multidrug resistance gene cfr in a Panton-Valentine leukocidin-positive sequence type 8 methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus IVa (USA300) isolate. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:4978-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01113-10
67. Liu Y, Wang Y, Wu C, Shen Z, Schwarz S, Du XD, et al. First report of the multidrug resistance gene cfr in Enterococcus faecalis of animal origin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:1650-4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.06091-11
68. Dai L, Wu CM, Wang MG, Wang Y, Wang Y, Huang SY, et al. First report of the multidrug resistance gene cfr and the phenicol resistance gene fexA in a Bacillus strain from swine feces. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:3953-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00169-10
69. Zhang WJ, Wu CM, Wang Y, Shen ZQ, Dai L, Han J, et al. The new genetic environment of cfr on plasmid pBS-02 in a Bacillus strain. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;66:1174-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkr037
70. Díaz L, Kiratisin P, Mendes RE, Panesso D, Singh KV, Arias CA. Transferable plasmid-mediated resistance to linezolid due to cfr in a human clinical isolate of Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:3917-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00419-12
71. Patel SN, Memari N, Shahinas D, Toye B, Jamieson FB, Farrell DJ. Linezolid resistance in Enterococcus faecium isolated in Ontario, Canada. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;77:350-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.08.012
72. LaMarre JM, Locke JB, Shaw KJ, Mankin AS. Low fitness cost of the multidrug resistance gene cfr. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:3714-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00153-11
73. Díaz L, Kontoyiannis DP, Panesso D, Albert ND, Singh KV, Tran TT, et al. Dissecting the mechanisms of linezolid resistance in a Drosophila melanogaster infection model of Staphylococcus aureus. J Infect Dis. 2013;208:83-91. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit138
74. Locke JB, Hilgers M, Shaw KJ. Novel ribosomal mutations in Staphylococcus aureus strains identified through selection with the oxazolidinones linezolid and torezolid (TR-700). Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;53:5265-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00871-09
75. Robbel L, Marahiel MA. Daptomycin, a bacterial lipopeptide synthesized by a nonribosomal machinery. J Biol Chem. 2010;36:27501-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1074/jbc.R110.128181
76. Debono M, Abbott BJ, Molloy RM, Fukuda DS, Hunt AH, Daupert VM, et al. Enzymatic and chemical modifications of lipopeptide antibiotic A21978C: The synthesis and evaluation of daptomycin (LY146032). J Antibiot (Tokyo). 1988;8:1093-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.7164/antibiotics.41.1093
77. González-Ruiz A, Beiras-Fernández A, Lehmkuhl H, Seaton RA, Loeffler J, Chaves RL. Clinical experience with daptomycin in Europe: The first 2.5 years. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2011;4:912-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkq528
78. Ernst CM, Staubitz P, Mishra NN, Yang SJ, Hornig G, Kalbacher H, et al. The bacterial defensin resistance protein MprF consists of separable domains for lipid lysinylation and antimicrobial peptide repulsion. PLoS Pathog. 2009;11:e1000660. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1000660
79. Straus SK, Hancock RE. Mode of action of the new antibiotic for Gram-positive pathogens daptomycin: Comparison with cationic antimicrobial peptides and lipopeptides. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2006;9:1215-23. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2006.02.009
80. Jung D, Rozek A, Okon M, Hancock RE. Structural transitions as determinants of the action of the calcium-dependent antibiotic daptomycin. Chem Biol. 2004;7:949-57. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chembiol.2004.04.020
81. Eliopoulos GM, Thauvin C, Gerson B, Moellering RC Jr. In vitro activity and mechanism of action of A21978C1, a novel cyclic lipopeptide antibiotic. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1985;3:357-62. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.27.3.357
82. Muraih JK, Pearson A, Silverman J, Palmer M. Oligomerization of daptomycin on membranes. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2011;1808:1154-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/jbbamem.2011.01.001
83. Pogliano J, Pogliano N, Silverman JA. Daptomycin-mediated reorganization of membrane architecture causes mislocalization of essential cell division proteins. J Bacteriol. 2012;17:4494-504. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JB.00011-12
84. Mariani PG, Sader HS, Jones RN. Development of decreased susceptibility to daptomycin and vancomycin in a Staphylococcus aureus strain during prolonged therapy. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2006;2:481-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkl256
85. Sharma M, Riederer K, Chase P, Khatib R. High rate of decreasing daptomycin susceptibility during the treatment of persistent Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2008 6:433-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10096-007-0455-5
86. Hayden MK, Rezai K, Hayes RA, Lolans K, Quinn JP, Weinstein RA. Development of daptomycin resistance in vivo in methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. J Clin Microbiol. 2005;10:5285-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.43.10.5285-5287.2005
87. Skiest DJ. Treatment failure resulting from resistance of Staphylococcus aureus to daptomycin. J Clin Microbiol. 2006;2:655-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.44.2.655-656.2006
88. Sader HS, Jones RN. The activity of daptomycin against wild-type Staphylococcus aureus and strains with reduced susceptibility to vancomycin. Clin Infect Dis. 2006;43:798-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/507109
89. Sader HS, Flamm RK, Jones RN. Antimicrobial activity of daptomycin tested against Gram-positive pathogens collected in Europe, Latin America, and selected countries in the Asia-Pacific Region (2011). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;75:417-22. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.01.001
90. Jones T, Yeaman MR, Sakoulas G, Yang SJ, Proctor RA, Sahl HG, et al. Failures in clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus Infection with daptomycin are associated with alterations in surface charge, membrane phospholipid asymmetry, and drug binding. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:269-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00719-07
91. Boyle-Vavra S, Jones M, Gourley BL, Holmes M, Ruf R, Balsam AR, et al. Comparative genome sequencing of an isogenic pair of USA800 clinical methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus isolates obtained before and after daptomycin treatment failure. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;5:2018-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01593-10
92. Friedman L, Alder JD, Silverman JA. Genetic changes that correlate with reduced susceptibility to daptomycin in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2006;6:2137-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00039-06
93. Mishra NN, Yang SJ, Sawa A, Rubio A, Nast CC, Yeaman MR, et al. Analysis of cell membrane characteristics of in vitro-selected daptomycin-resistant strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2009;6:2312-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01682-08.
94. Jones T, Yeaman MR, Sakoulas G, Yang SJ, Proctor RA, Sahl HG, et al. Failures in clinical treatment of Staphylococcus aureus infection with daptomycin are associated with alterations in surface charge, membrane phospholipid asymmetry, and drug binding. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:269-78. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00719-07
95. Ernst CM, Peschel A. Broad-spectrum antimicrobial peptide resistance by MprF-mediated aminoacylation and flipping of phospholipids. Mol Microbiol. 2011;80:290-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2958.2011.07576.x
96. Mishra NN, Yang SJ, Chen L, Muller C, Saleh-Mghir A, Kuhn S, et al. Emergence of daptomycin resistance in daptomycin-naïve rabbits with methicillin-resistant Staphyl-ococcus aureus prosthetic joint infection is associated with resistance to host defense cationic peptides and mprF polymorphisms. PLoS One. 2013;8:e71151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071151
97. Yang SJ, Kreiswirth BN, Sakoulas G, Yeaman MR, Xiong YQ, Sawa A, et al. Enhanced expression of dltABCD is associated with the development of daptomycin nonsusceptibility in a clinical endocarditis isolate of Staphyl-ococcus aureus. J Infect Dis. 2009;12:1916-20. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/648473
98. Cui L, Isii T, Fukuda M, Ochiai T, Neoh HM, Camargo IL, et al. An RpoB mutation confers dual heteroresistance to daptomycin and vancomycin in Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010;54:5222-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00437-10
99. Mascher T, Helmann JD, Unden G. Stimulus perception in bacterial signal-transducing histidine kinases. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2006;70:910-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.00020-06
100. Peleg AY, Miyakis S, Ward DV, Earl AM, Rubio A, Cameron DR, et al. Whole genome characterization of the mechanisms of daptomycin resistance in clinical and laboratory derived isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2012;7:e28316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028316
101. Mehta S, Cuirolo AX, Plata KB, Riosa S, Silverman JA, Rubio A, et al. VraSR two-component regulatory system contributes to mprF-mediated decreased susceptibility to daptomycin in vivo-selected clinical strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:92-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00432-10
102. Camargo IL, Neoh HM, Cui L, Hiramatsu K. Serial daptomycin selection generates daptomycin-nonsusceptible Staphylococcus aureus strains with a heterogeneous vancomycin-intermediate phenotype. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:4289-99. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00417-08
103. Koprivnjak T, Zhang D, Ernst CM, Peschel A, Nauseef WM, Weiss JP. Characterization of Staphylococcus aureus cardiolipin synthases 1 and 2 and their contribution to accumulation of cardiolipin in stationary phase and within phagocytes. J Bacteriol. 2011;193:4134-42. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JB.00288-11.
104. Short SA, White DC. Biosynthesis of cardiolipin from phosphatidylglycerol in Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol. 1972;109:820-6.
105. Peleg AY, Miyakis S, Ward DV, Earl AM, Rubio A, Cameron DR, et al. Whole genome characterization of the mechanisms of daptomycin resistance in clinical and laboratory derived isolates of Staphylococcus aureus. PLoS One. 2012;1:e28316. http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0028316
106. Lewis JS 2nd, Owens A, Cadena J, Sabol K, Patterson JE, Jorgensen JH. Emergence of daptomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium during daptomycin therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2005;49:1664-5. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.49.4.1664-1665.2005
107. Humphries RM, Kelesidis T, Tewhey R, Rose WE, Schork N, Nizet V, et al. Genotypic and phenotypic evaluation of the evolution of high-level daptomycin nonsusceptibility in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012;56:6051-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01318-12
108. Kelesidis T, Tewhey R, Humphries RM. Evolution of high-level daptomycin resistance in Enterococcus faecium during daptomycin therapy is associated with limited mutations in the bacterial genome. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2013. 68:1926-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkt117
109. Muñoz-Price LS, Lolans K, Quinn JP. Emergence of resistance to daptomycin during treatment of vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis infection. Clin Infect Dis. 2005;41:565-6. http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/432121
110. Arias CA, Panesso D, McGrath DM, Qin X, Mojica MF, Miller C, et al. Genetic basis for in vivo daptomycin resistance in enterococci. N Engl J Med. 2011;10:892-900. http://dx.doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1011138.
111. Tran TT, Panesso D, Gao H, Roh JH, Munita JM, Reyes J, et al. Whole-genome analysis of a daptomycin-susceptible Enterococcus faecium strain and its daptomycin-resistant variant arising during therapy. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;57:261-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01454-12.
112. Suntharalingam P, Senadheera MD, Mair RW, Lévesque CM, Cvitkovitch DG. The LiaFSR system regulates the cell envelope stress response in Streptococcus mutans. J Bacteriol. 2009;9:2973-84. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JB.01563-08
113. Jordan S, Hutchings MI, Mascher T. Cell envelope stress response in Gram-positive bacteria. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2008;32:107-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6976.2007.00091.x
114. Munita JM, Panesso D, Díaz L, Tran TT, Reyes J, Wanger A, et al. Correlation between mutations in liaFSR of Enterococcus faecium and MIC of daptomycin: Revisiting daptomycin breakpoints. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2012:8:4354-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00509-12
115. Munita JM, Tran TT, Díaz L, Panesso D, Reyes J, Murray BE, et al. A liaF codon deletion abolishes daptomycin bactericidal activity against vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;6:2831-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00021-13
116. Tran TT, Panesso D, Mishra NN, Mileykovskaya E, Guan Z, Munita JM, et al. Daptomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecalis diverts the antibiotic molecule from the division septum and remodels cell membrane phospholipids. MBio.2013;4. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/mBio.00281-13
117. Davlieva M, Zhang W, Arias CA, Shamoo Y. Biochemical characterization of cardiolipin synthase mutations associ-ated with daptomycin resistance in enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2013;1:289-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01743-12
118. Palmer KL, Daniel A, Hardy C, Silverman J, Gilmore MS. Genetic basis for daptomycin resistance in enterococci. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;7:3345-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.00207-11
119. Chopra I, Roberts M. Tetracycline antibiotics: Mode of action, cations, molecular biology, and epidemiology of bacterial resistance. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev. 2001.65:232-60. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/MMBR.65.2.232-260.2001
120. Griffin MO, Ceballos G, Villarreal FJ. Tetracycline compounds with non-antimicrobial organ protective prop-erties: Possible mechanisms of action. Pharmacol Res. 2011;63:102-107. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2010.10.004
121. Ross JI, Eady E, Cove J, Cunliffe W. 16S-rRNA mutation associated with tetracycline resistance in a gram-positive bacterium. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 1998;42:1702-5.
122. Doan TL, Fung HB, Mehta D, Riska PF. Tigecycline: A glycylcycline. Clin Ther. 2006;28:1079-106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.clinthera.2006.08.011
123. Pérez F. Current and novel antibiotics against resistant Gram-positive bacteria. Infect Drug Resist. 2008;1:27-44.
124. Karageorgopoulos DE, Kelesidis T, Kelesidis I, Falagas ME. Tigecycline for the treatment of multidrug-resistant including carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter infections: A review of the scientific evidence. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;62:45-55. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkn165
125. Sader HS, Flamm RK, Jones RN. Tigecycline activity tested against antimicrobial resistant surveillance subsets of clinical bacteria collected worldwide (2011). Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis. 2013;76:217-21. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.02.009
126. Pankey GA. Tigecycline. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2005; 56:470-8.
127. Brandon M, Dowzicky MJ. Antimicrobial susceptibility among Gram-positive organisms collected from pediatric patients globally between 2004 and 2011: Results from the Tigecycline Evaluation and Surveillance Trial. J Clin Microbiol. 2013;51:2371-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00157-13
128. Garza-González E, Dowzicky MJ. Changes in Staphyl-ococcus aureus susceptibility across Latin America between 2004 and 2010. Braz J Infect Dis. 2013;17:13-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bjid.2012.08.017
129. Martínez E, Alquichire C, Pérez C, Prada G, Rozo V, Larotta J. Comparación de la actividad in vitro de la tigeciclina contra microorganismos causantes de infección en pacientes hospitalizados en Colombia: estudio de evaluación y vigilancia de tigeciclina TEST. Infectio. 2007; 11:159-70.
130. Werner G, Gfrörer S, Fleige C, Witte W, Klare I. Tigecycline-resistant Enterococcus faecalis strain isolated from a German intensive care unit patient. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2008;61:1182-3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkn065
131. Cordina C, Hill R, Deshpande A, Hood J, Inkster T. Tigecycline-resistant Enterococcus faecalis associated with omeprazole use in a surgical patient. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012;67:1806-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dks122
132. Steed ME, Rybak MJ. Ceftaroline: A new cephalosporin with activity against resistant gram-positive pathogens. Pharmacotherapy. 2010;30:375-89. http://dx.doi.org/10.1592/phco.30.4.375.
133. Saravolatz LD, Stein GE, Johnson LB. Ceftaroline: A novel cephalosporin with activity against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Clin Infect Dis. 2011; 52:1156-63. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cir147
134. File TM Jr, Wilcox MH, Stein GE. Summary of ceftaroline fosamil clinical trial studies and clinical safety. Clin Infect Dis 2012;55 S173-80. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis559.
135. Zhanel GG, Sniezek G, Schweizer F, Zelenitsky S, Lagacé-Wiens PR, Rubinstein E, et al. Ceftaroline: A novel broad-spectrum cephalosporin with activity against meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Drugs. 2009; 69:809-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003495-200969070- 00003
136. Farrell DJ, Castanheira M, Mendes RE, Sader HS, Jones RN. In vitro activity of ceftaroline against multidrug-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Streptococcus pneumoniae: A review of published studies and the AWARE Surveillance Program (2008-2010). Clin Infect Dis 2012;55:S206-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cid/cis563
137. Clark C, McGhee P, Appelbaum PC, Kosowska-Shick K. Multistep resistance development studies of ceftaroline in gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2011;55:2344-51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01602-10
138. Murthy B, Schmitt-Hoffmann A. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of ceftobiprole, an anti-MRSA cephalo-sporin with broad-spectrum activity. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2008;47:21-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.2165/00003088-200847010-00003
139. Chahine EB, Nornoo AO. Ceftobiprole: The first broad-spectrum anti methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus Beta-Lactam. J Exp Clin Med. 2011;3:9-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jecm.2010.12.007
140. Anderson SD, Gums JG. Ceftobiprole: An extended-spectrum anti-methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus cephalosporin. Ann Pharmacother. 2008;42:806-16. http://dx.doi.org/10.1345/aph.1L016
141. Jones RN, Deshpande LM, Mutnick AH, Biedenbach DJ. In vitro evaluation of BAL9141, a novel parenteral cephalosporin active against oxacillin-resistant staphyl-ococci. J Antimicrob Chemother. 2002;50:915-32. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jac/dkf249
142. Banerjee R, Gretes M, Basuino L, Strynadka N, Chambers HF. In vitro selection and characterization of ceftobiprole-resistant methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2008;52:2089-96. http://dx.doi.org/10.1128/AAC.01403-07
143. Barton E, MacGowan A. Future treatment options for Gram-positive infections--looking ahead. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2009;15 S6:17-25. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-0691.2009.03055.x