Using Enthesis Robusticity to Infer Activity in the Past: A Review

Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory

Volumn 21, Issue 3, 2014, Pages 511-533

  Foster, Aimee ^a   Buckley, Hallie ^a   Tayles, Nancy ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO   (New Zealand)

Author keywords

Activity; Entheseal change; Enthesis robusticity; Musculoskeletal stress markers

Indexed keywords

EID: 84905690439     PISSN: 10725369     EISSN: 15737764     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s10816-012-9156-1     Document Type: Review

References (136)

1. Abe, T., Kearns, C. F., & Fukunaga, T. (2003). Sex differences in whole body skeletal muscle mass measured by magnetic resonance imaging and its distribution in young Japanese adults. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 37, 436-440.
2. Ahlborg, H. G., Johnell, O., Turner, C. H., Rannevik, G., & Karlsson, M. K. (2003). Bone loss and bone size after menopause. The New England Journal of Medicine, 349, 327-334.
3. al-Oumaoui, I., Jiménez-Brobeil, S., & du Souich, P. (2004). Markers of activity patterns in some populations of the Iberian Peninsula. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 14, 343-359.
4. Alves Cardoso, F. (2008). Occupational bioarchaeology: beyond macroscopic observation and statistical approaches. Paper presented at the XVII European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Copenhagen.
5. Alves Cardoso, F., & Henderson, C. Y. (2010). Enthesopathy formation in the humerus: data from known age-at-death and known occupation skeletal collections. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 141, 550-560.
6. Angel, J. L., Kelley, J. O., Parrington, M., & Pinter, S. (1987). Life stresses of the free Black community as represented by the First African Baptist Church, Philadelphia, 1823-1841. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 74, 213-229.
7. Bass, S. L., Saxon, L., Daly, R. M., Turner, C. H., Robling, A. G., Seeman, E., et al. (2002). The effect of mechanical loading on the size and shape of bone in pre-, peri-, and postpubertal girls: a study in tennis players. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 17, 2274-2280.
8. Beck, B. R. (2009). Muscle forces or gravity-what predominates mechanical loading on bone?: Introduction. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41, 2033-2036.
9. Benjamin, M., & Hillen, B. (2003). Editorial: mechanical influences on cells, tissues and organs-'mechanical morphogenesis'. European Journal of Morphology, 41, 3-7.
10. Benjamin, M., & McGonagle, D. (2009). Entheses: tendon and ligament attachment sites. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 19, 520-527.
11. Benjamin, M., Evans, E. J., & Copp, L. (1986). The histology of tendon attachments to bone in man. Journal of Anatomy, 149, 89-100.
12. Benjamin, M., Kumai, T., Milz, S., Boszczyk, B. M., Boszczyk, A. A., & Ralphs, J. R. (2002). The skeletal attachment of tendons-tendon 'entheses'. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part A, 133, 931-945.
13. Benjamin, M., Toumi, H., Ralphs, J. R., Bydder, G., Best, T. M., & Milz, S. (2006). Where tendons and ligaments meet bone: attachment sites ('entheses') in relation to exercise and/or mechanical load. Journal of Anatomy, 208, 471-490.
14. Booth, F. W., & Thomason, D. B. (1991). Molecular and cellular adaptation of muscle in response to exercise: perspectives of various models. Physiological Reviews, 71, 541-585.
15. Burr, D. B., Robling, A. G., & Turner, C. H. (2002). Effects of biomechanical stress on bones in animals. Bone, 30, 781-786.
16. Chamay, A., & Tschantz, P. (1972). Mechanical influences in bone remodeling. Experimental research on Wolff's law. Journal of Biomechanics, 5, 173-180.
17. Churchill, S. E., & Morris, A. G. (1998). Muscle marking morphology and labour intensity in prehistoric Khoisan foragers. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 8, 390-411.
18. Cooper, R. R., Misol, S., & Stimmel, P. (1970). Tendon and ligament insertion: a light and electron microscopic study. Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery [Am], 52, 1-20, 170.
19. Couppé, C., Kongsgaard, M., Aagaard, P., Hansen, P., Bojsen-Moller, J., Kjaer, M., et al. (2008). Habitual loading results in tendon hypertrophy and increased stiffness of the human patellar tendon. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105, 805-810.
20. Cullen, D. M., Smith, R. T., & Akhter, M. P. (2001). Bone-loading response varies with strain magnitude and cycle number. Journal of Applied Physiology, 91, 1971-1976.
21. Cureton, K. J., Collins, M. A., Hill, D. W., & McElhannon, F. M., Jr. (1988). Muscle hypertrophy in men and women. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 20, 338-344.
22. Daly, R. M., Saxon, L., Turner, C. H., Robling, A. G., & Bass, S. L. (2004). The relationship between muscle size and bone geometry during growth and in response to exercise. Bone, 34, 281-287.
23. Donnelly, M. W., Swoope, C. C., & Moffett, B. C. (1973). Alveolar bone deposition by means of periosteal tension. Journal of Dental Research, 52, 63 (abstract).
24. Dörfl, J. (1980a). Migration of tendinous insertions. I. Cause and mechanism. Journal of Anatomy, 131, 179-195.
25. Dörfl, J. (1980b). Migration of tendinous insertions. II. Experimental modifications. Journal of Anatomy, 131, 229-237.
26. Doschak, M. R., & Zernicke, R. F. (2005). Structure, function and adaptation of bone-tendon and bone-ligament complexes. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 5, 35-40.
27. Drapeau, M. S. M. (2008). Enthesis bilateral asymmetry in humans and African apes. HOMO-Journal of Comparative Human Biology, 59, 93-109.
28. Epker, B. N., & Frost, H. M. (1966). Periosteal appositional bone growth from age two to age seventy in man: a tetracycline evaluation. Anatomical Record, 154, 573-577.
29. Eshed, V., Gopher, A., Galili, E., & Hershkovitz, I. (2004). Musculoskeletal stress markers in Natufian hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers in the Levant: the upper limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 123, 303-315.
30. Forwood, M. R., & Burr, D. B. (1993). Physical activity and bone mass: exercises in futility? Bone and Mineral, 21, 89-112.
31. Frank, C. (2004). Ligament structure, physiology and function. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 4, 199-201.
32. Frost, H. M. (1999). On the estrogen-bone relationship and postmenopausal bone loss: a new model. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 14, 1473-1477.
33. Frost, H. M. (2001). From Wolff's law to the Utah paradigm: insights about bone physiology and its clinical applications. Anatomical Record, 262, 398-419.
34. Gallagher, D., & Heymsfield, S. B. (1998). Muscle distribution: variations with body weight, gender, and age. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 49, 733-734.
35. Gallagher, D., Visser, M., De Meersman, R. E., Sepúlveda, D., Baumgartner, R. N., Pierson, R. N., et al. (1997). Appendicular skeletal muscle mass: effects of age, gender, and ethnicity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83, 229-239.
36. Gao, J., Messner, K., Ralphs, J. R., & Benjamin, M. (1996). An immunohistochemical study of enthesis development in the medial collateral ligament of the rat knee joint. Anatomy and Embryology, 194, 399-406.
37. Grant, P. G., Buschang, P. H., Drolet, D. W., & Pickerell, C. (1981). The effect of changes in muscle function and bone growth on muscle migration. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 54, 547-553.
38. Hamrick, M. W., McPherron, A. C., & Lovejoy, C. O. (2002). Bone mineral content and density in the humerus of adult myostatin-deficient mice. Calcified Tissue International, 71, 63-68.
39. Hamrick, M. W., McPherron, A. C., Lovejoy, C. O., & Hudson, J. (2000). Femoral morphology and cross-sectional geometry of adult myostatin-deficient mice. Bone, 27, 343-349.
40. Hamrick, M. W., Pennington, C., & Byron, C. D. (2003). Bone architecture and disc degeneration in the lumbar spine of mice lacking GDF-8 (myostatin). Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 21, 1025-1032.
41. Hamrick, M. W., Samaddar, T., Pennington, C., & McCormick, J. (2006). Increased muscle mass with myostatin deficiency improves gains in bone strength with exercise. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 21, 477-483.
42. Hansen, P., Aagaard, P., Kjaer, M., Larsson, B., & Magnusson, S. P. (2003). Effect of habitual running on human Achilles tendon load-deformation properties and cross-sectional area. Journal of Applied Physiology, 95, 2375-2380.
43. Hawkey, D. E., & Merbs, C. F. (1995). Activity-induced musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) and subsistence strategy changes among ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 5, 324-338.
44. Hems, T., & Tillmann, B. (2000). Tendon entheses of the human masticatory muscles. Anatomy and Embryology, 202, 201-208.
45. Henderson, C. (2009). Musculo-skeletal stress markers in bioarchaeology: indicators of activity levels or human variation? A re-analysis and interpretation. Unpublished PhD thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Durham.
46. Henderson, C., & Cardoso, F. A. (2008). Enthesopathy formation: data on known age at death and occupation. Paper presented at the XVII European Meeting of the Paleopathology Association, Copenhagen.
47. Herring, S. W. (1994). Development of functional interactions between skeletal and muscular systems. In B. K. Hall (Ed.), Bone (pp. 165-191). Boca Raton, FL: CRC.
48. Houghton, P. (1980). The first New Zealanders. Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton.
49. Hoyte, D. A. N., & Enlow, D. H. (1966). Wolff's law and the problem of muscle attachment on resorptive surfaces of bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 24, 205-213.
50. Hurov, J. R. (1986). Soft-tissue bone interface: how do attachments of muscles, tendons, and ligaments change during growth? A light microscopic study. Journal of Morphology, 189, 313-325.
51. Janssen, I., Heymsfield, S. B., Wang, Z., & Ross, R. (2000). Skeletal muscle mass and distribution in 468 men and women aged 18-88 yr. Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 81-88.
52. Judex, S., & Carlson, K. J. (2009). Is bone's response to mechanical signals dominated by gravitational loading? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41, 2037-2043.
53. Jurmain, R., & Villotte, S. (2010). Terminology. Entheses in medical literature: a brief review. Published online following the Workshop in Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): Limitations and Achievements in the Reconstruction of Past Activity Patterns, University of Coimbra, 2-3 July 2009. Coimbra, CIAS-Centro de Investigação em Antropologia e Saúde. http://www. uc. pt/en/cia/msm/MSM_terminology3. Accessed 1 February 2011.
54. Kannus, P., Haapasalo, H., Sankelo, M., Sievänen, H., Pasanen, M., Heinonen, A., et al. (1995). Effect of starting age of physical activity on bone mass in the dominant arm of tennis and squash players. Annals of Internal Medicine, 123, 27-31.
55. Kelley, J. O., & Angel, J. L. (1987). Life stresses of slavery. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 74, 199-211.
56. Kerr, D., Morton, A., Dick, I., & Prince, R. (1996). Exercise effects on bone mass in postmenopausal women are site-specific and load-dependent. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 11, 218-225.
57. Kjaer, M., & Hansen, M. (2008). The mystery of female connective tissue. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105, 1026-1027.
58. Kjaer, M., Langberg, H., Heinemeier, K., Bayer, M. L., Hansen, M., Holm, L., et al. (2009). From mechanical loading to collagen synthesis, structural changes and function in human tendon. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 19, 500-510.
59. Kohrt, W. M., Barry, D. W., & Schwartz, R. S. (2009). Muscle forces or gravity: what predominates mechanical loading on bone? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41, 2050-2055.
60. Kongsgaard, M., Aagaard, P., Kjaer, M., & Magnusson, S. P. (2005). Structural Achilles tendon properties in athletes subjected to different exercise modes and in Achilles tendon rupture patients. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99, 1965-1971.
61. Kongsgaard, M., Reitelseder, S., Pederson, T. G., Holm, L., Aagaard, P., Kjaer, M., et al. (2007). Region specific patellar tendon hypertrophy in humans following resistance training. Acta Physiologica, 191, 111-121.
62. Kubo, K., Yata, H., Kanehisa, H., & Fukunaga, T. (2006). Effects of isometric squat training on the tendon stiffness and jump performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 96, 305-314.
63. Lai, P., & Lovell, N. C. (1992). Skeletal markers of occupational stress in the fur trade: a case study from a Hudson's Bay Company fur trade post. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 2, 221-234.
64. Lanyon, L. E., & Rubin, C. T. (1984). Static vs dynamic loads as an influence on bone remodelling. Journal of Biomechanics, 17, 897-905.
65. Lieverse, A. R., Bazaliiskii, V. I., Goriunova, O. I., & Weber, A. W. (2009). Upper limb musculoskeletal stress markers among middle Holocene foragers of Siberia's Cis-Baikal region. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 138, 458-472.
66. Lovell, N. C., & Dublenko, A. A. (1999). Further aspects of fur trade life depicted in the skeleton. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 9, 248-256.
67. Lynch, G. S., Hinkle, R. T., Chamberlain, J. S., Brooks, S. V., & Faulkner, J. A. (2001). Force and power output of fast and slow skeletal muscles from mdx mice 6-28 months old. The Journal of Physiology, 535, 591-600.
68. MacDougall, J. D., Sale, D. G., Alway, S. E., & Sutton, J. R. (1984). Muscle fiber number in biceps brachii in bodybuilders and control subjects. Journal of Applied Physiology, 57, 1399-1403.
69. Magnusson, S. P., & Kjaer, M. (2003). Region-specific differences in Achilles tendon cross-sectional area in runners and non-runners. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 90, 549-553.
70. Mariotti, V., & Belcastro, M. G. (2011). Lower limb entheseal morphology in the Neandertal Krapina population (Croatia, 130 000 BP). Journal of Human Evolution, 60, 694-702.
71. Mariotti, V., Facchini, F., & Belcastro, M. G. (2004). Enthesopathies-proposal of a standardized scoring method and applications. Collegium Antropologicum, 28, 145-159.
72. Mariotti, V., Facchini, F., & Belcastro, M. G. (2007). The study of entheses: proposal of a standardised scoring method for twenty-three entheses of the postcranial skeleton. Collegium Antropologicum, 31, 291-313.
73. Mariotti, V., Milella, M., & Belcastro, M. G. (2009). Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM): methodological reflections. Paper presented at the Workshop in Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): Limitations and Achievements in the Reconstruction of Past Activity Patterns, Coimbra.
74. Milella, M., Belcastro, M. G., Zollikofer, C. P. E., & Mariotti, V. (2012). The effect of age, sex, and physical activity on entheseal morphology in a contemporary Italian skeletal collection. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 148, 379-388.
75. Miller, A. E. J., MacDougall, J. D., Tarnopolsky, M. A., & Sale, D. G. (1993). Gender differences in strength and muscle fibre characteristics. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 66, 254-262.
76. Molnar, P. (2006). Tracing prehistoric activities: musculoskeletal stress marker analysis of a Stone-Age population on the island of Gotland in the Baltic Sea. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 129, 12-23.
77. Molnar, P. (2010). Patterns of physical activity and material culture on Gotland, Sweden, during the Middle Neolithic. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 20, 1-14.
78. Montgomery, E., Pennington, C., Isales, C. M., & Hamrick, M. W. (2005). Muscle-bone interactions in dystophin-deficient and myostatin-deficient mice. The Anatomical Record. Part A, Discoveries in Molecular, Cellular, and Evolutionary Biology, 286, 814-822.
79. Munson Chapman, N. E. (1997). Evidence for Spanish influence on activity induced musculoskeletal stress markers at Pecos Pueblo. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 7, 497-506.
80. Niinimäki, S. (2011). What do muscle marker ruggedness scores actually tell us? International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 21, 292-299.
81. Niinimäki, S. (2012). The relationship between musculoskeletal stress makers and biomechanical properties of the humeral diaphysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 147, 618-628.
82. Niskanen, M., & Junno, J. (2009). Estimation of African apes' body size from postcranial dimensions. Primates, 50, 211-220.
83. Núñez, M., Niinimäki, S., Niskanen, M., & Junno, J. (2009). Cross sections of radial tuberosity-geometrical properties, BMD distribution and effects of aging in MSM remodeling. Paper presented at the Workshop in Musculoskeletal Stress Markers (MSM): Limitations and Achievements in the Reconstruction of Past Activity Patterns, Coimbra.
84. Parker, D. F., Round, J. M., Sacco, P., & Jones, D. A. (1990). A cross-sectional survey of upper and lower limb strength in boys and girls during childhood and adolescence. Annals of Human Biology, 17, 199-211.
85. Pearson, O. M., & Buikstra, J. E. (2006). Behavior and the bones. In J. E. Buikstra & L. A. Beck (Eds.), Bioarchaeology: the contextual analysis of human remains (pp. 207-225). Boston, MA: Elsevier.
86. Peterson, J. (2002). Sexual revolutions: gender and labor at the dawn of agriculture. Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira.
87. Pfeiffer, S. (1980). Age changes in the external dimensions of adult bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 529-532.
88. Porčić, M., & Stefanović, S. (2009). Physical activity and social status in Early Bronze Age society: the Mokrin necropolis. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 28, 259-273.
89. Raab-Cullen, D. M., Thiede, M. A., Peterson, D. N., Kimmel, D. B., & Recher, R. R. (1994). Mechanical loading stimulates rapid changes in periosteal gene expression. Calcified Tissue International, 55, 473-478.
90. Reeves, N. D. (2006). Adaptation of the tendon to mechanical usage. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 6, 174-180.
91. Reeves, N. D., Maganaris, C. N., & Narici, M. V. (2003). Effect of strength training on human patella tendon mechanical properties of older individuals. The Journal of Physiology, 548, 971-981.
92. Robb, J. (1998). The interpretation of skeletal muscle sites: a statistical approach. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 8, 363-377.
93. Robling, A. G. (2009). Is bone's response to mechanical signals dominated by muscle forces? Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 41, 2044-2049.
94. Robling, A. G., Burr, D. B., & Turner, C. H. (2000). Partitioning a daily mechanical stimulus into discrete loading bouts improves the osteogenic response to loading. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research, 15, 1596-1602.
95. Rodrigues, T. (2005). Gender and social differentiation within the Turner population, Ohio, as evidenced by activity-induced musculoskeletal stress markers. In C. Carr & D. T. Case (Eds.), Gathering Hopewell: society, ritual, and ritual interaction (pp. 405-427). New York, NY: Kluwer Academic.
96. Rosager, S., Aagaard, P., Dyhre-Poulsen, P., Neergaard, K., Kjaer, M., & Magnusson, S. P. (2002). Load-displacement properties of the human triceps surae aponeurosis and tendon in runners and non-runners. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 12, 90-98.
97. Round, J. M., Jones, D. A., Honour, J. W., & Nevill, A. M. (1999). Hormonal factors in the development of differences in strength between boys and girls during adolescence: a longitudinal study. Annals of Human Biology, 26, 49-62.
98. Ruff, C. (2003). Growth in bone strength, body size, and muscle size in a juvenile longitudinal sample. Bone, 33, 317-329.
99. Ruff, C., & Hayes, W. C. (1982). Subperiosteal expansion and cortical remodeling of the human femur and tibia with aging. Science, 217, 945-948.
100. Ruff, C., & Hayes, W. C. (1988). Sex differences in age-related remodeling of the femur and tibia. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 6, 886-896.
101. Ruff, C., Holt, B., & Trinkaus, E. (2006). Who's afraid of the big bad Wolff?: "Wolff's law" and bone functional adaptation. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 129, 484-498.
102. Sale, D. G., MacDougall, J. D., Alway, S. E., & Sutton, J. R. (1987). Voluntary strength and muscle characteristics in untrained men and women and male bodybuilders. Journal of Applied Physiology, 62, 1786-1793.
103. Schantz, P., Randall-Fox, E., Norgren, P., & Tydén, A. (1981). The relationship between the mean muscle fibre area and the muscle cross-sectional area of the thigh in subjects with large differences in thigh girth. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 113, 537-539.
104. Schantz, P., Randall-Fox, E., Hutchinson, W., Tydén, A., & Åstrand, P.-O. (1983). Muscle fibre type distribution, muscle cross-sectional area and maximal voluntary strength in humans. Acta Physiologica Scandinavica, 117, 219-226.
105. Schiessl, H., Frost, H. M., & Jee, W. S. S. (1998). Estrogen and bone-muscle strength and mass relationships. Bone, 22, 1-6.
106. Schoenau, E., Neu, C. M., Mokov, E., Wassmer, G., & Manz, F. (2000). Influence of puberty on muscle area and cortical bone area of the forearm in boys and girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 85, 1095-1098.
107. Seeman, E. (2001). Sexual dimorphism in skeletal size, density, and strength. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 86, 4576-4584.
108. Šešelj, M., Nahhas, R. W., Sherwood, R. J., Chumlea, W. C., Towne, B., & Duren, D. L. (2012). The influence of age at menarche on cross-sectional geometry of bone in young adulthood. Bone, 51, 38-45.
109. Seynnes, O. R., Erskine, R. M., Maganaris, C. N., Longo, S., Simoneau, E. M., Grosset, J. F., et al. (2009). Training-induced changes in structural and mechanical properties of the patellar tendon are related to muscle hypertrophy but not to strength gains. Journal of Applied Physiology, 107, 523-530.
110. Shaw, H. M., & Benjamin, M. (2007). Structure-function relationships of entheses in relation to mechanical load and exercise. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 17, 303-315.
111. Steen, S. L., & Lane, R. W. (1998). Evaluation of habitual activities among two Alaskan Eskimo populations based on musculoskeletal stress markers. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 8, 341-353.
112. Stefanović, S., & Porčić, M. (2011). Between-group differences in the patterning of musculo-skeletal stress markers: avoiding confounding factors by focusing on qualitative aspects of physical activity. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology. doi: 10. 1002/oa. 1243. (in press).
113. Sumnik, Z., Land, C., Coburger, S., Neu, C., Manz, F., Hrach, K., et al. (2006). The muscle-bone unit in adulthood: influence of sex, height, age and gynecological history on the bone mineral content and muscle cross-sectional area. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 6, 195-200.
114. Tanner, J. M., Hughes, P. C. R., & Whitehouse, R. H. (1981). Radiographically determined widths of bone muscle and fat in the upper arm and calf from age 3-18 years. Annals of Human Biology, 8, 495-517.
115. Thomopoulos, S., Genin, G. M., & Galatz, L. M. (2010). The development and morphogenesis of the tendon-to-bone insertion-what development can teach us about healing. Journal of Musculoskeletal and Neuronal Interactions, 10, 35-45.
116. Tipton, C. M., Matthes, R. D., Maynard, J. A., & Carey, R. A. (1975). The influence of physical activity on ligaments and tendons. Medicine and Science in Sports, 7, 165-175.
117. Turner, C. H. (1998). Three rules for bone adaptation to mechanical stimuli. Bone, 23, 399-407.
118. Vecchione, L., Byron, C., Cooper, G. M., Barbano, T., Hamrick, M. W., Sciote, J. J., et al. (2007). Craniofacial morphology in myostatin-deficient mice. Journal of Dental Research, 86, 1068-1072.
119. Villotte, S. (2006). Connaissances médicales actuelles, cotation des enthésopathies: nouvelle méthode. Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris, 18, 65-85.
120. Villotte, S., Castex, D., Couallier, V., Dutour, O., Knüsel, C. J., & Henry-Gambier, D. (2010). Enthesopathies as occupational stress markers: evidence from the upper limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 142, 224-234.
121. Wackerhage, H., & Rennie, M. J. (2006). How nutrition and exercise maintain the human musculoskeletal mass. Journal of Anatomy, 208, 451-458.
122. Watkins, J. (1999). Structure and function of the musculoskeletal system. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
123. Wei, X., & Messner, K. (1996). The postnatal development of the insertions of the medial collateral ligament in the rat knee. Anatomy and Embryology, 193, 53-59.
124. Weiss, E. (2003). Understanding muscle markers: aggregation and construct validity. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 121, 230-240.
125. Weiss, E. (2004). Understanding muscle markers: lower limbs. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 125, 232-238.
126. Weiss, E. (2007). Muscle markers revisited: activity pattern reconstruction with controls in a central California Amerind population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 133, 931-940.
127. Weiss, E., Corona, L., & Schultz, B. (2012). Sex differences in musculoskeletal stress markers: problems with activity pattern reconstructions. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 22, 70-80.
128. Westh, E., Kongsgaard, M., Bojsen-Moller, J., Aagaard, P., Hansen, M., Kjaer, M., et al. (2008). Effect of habitual exercise on the structural and mechanical properties of human tendon, in vivo, in men and women. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 18, 23-30.
129. White, T. D., & Folkens, P. A. (2005). The human bone manual. Burlington, MA: Elsevier Academic.
130. Whiting, W. C., & Zernicke, R. F. (1998). Biomechanics of musculoskeletal injury. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
131. Wilczak, C. A. (1998). Consideration of sexual dimorphism, age, and asymmetry in quantitative measurements of muscle insertion sites. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 8, 311-325.
132. Woo, S. L., Maynard, J., Butler, D., Lyon, R., Torzilli, P., Akeson, W., et al. (1988). Ligament, tendon, and joint capsule insertions to bone. In S. L. Woo & J. A. Buckwalter (Eds.), Injury and repair of the musculoskeletal soft tissues (pp. 133-166). Illinois: American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons.
133. Zernicke, R. F., Judex, S., & Lorincz, C. (2007). Adaptation of biological materials to exercise, disuse, and aging. In B. M. Nigg & W. Herzog (Eds.), Biomechanics of the musculo-skeletal system (3rd ed., pp. 226-243). Chichester: Wiley.
134. Zumwalt, A. (2005). A new method for quantifying the complexity of muscle attachment sites. Anatomical Record. Part B, New Anatomist, 286, 21-28.
135. Zumwalt, A. (2006). The effect of endurance exercise on the morphology of muscle attachment sites. Journal of Experimental Biology, 209, 444-454.
136. Zumwalt, A., Ruff, C. B., & Wilczak, C. A. (2000). Primate muscle insertions: what does size tell you? American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 30, 331 (abstract).