An overview of unsolved deficiencies of direct methanol fuel cell technology: Factors and parameters affecting its widespread use

International Journal of Energy Research

Volumn 38, Issue 11, 2014, Pages 1367-1390

  Kumar, Piyush ^a   Dutta, Kingshuk ^a   Das, Suparna ^a   Kundu, Patit Paban ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA   (India)

Author keywords

Electrode flow rate; Electrode kinetics; Energy conversion efficiency; Membrane thickness; Methanol crossover; Polarization

Indexed keywords

CONVERSION EFFICIENCY; ENERGY CONVERSION; FUEL CELLS; FUEL STORAGE; POLARIZATION;

DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS (DMFCS); ELECTRODE FLOW; ELECTRODE KINETICS; MEMBRANE THICKNESS; METHANOL CROSSOVER; PORTABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICES; STORAGE AND HANDLING; TRANSPORTATION SECTOR;

DIRECT METHANOL FUEL CELLS (DMFC);

EID: 84905021712     PISSN: 0363907X     EISSN: 1099114X     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/er.3163     Document Type: Article

References (166)

1. Grove WR. On voltaic series and the combination of gases by platinum. Philosophical Magazine Series 3 1839; 14:127-130.
2. Aricò AS, Srinivasan S, Antonucci V. DMFCs: from fundamental aspects to technology development. Fuel Cells 2001; 1:133-161.
3. Rice C, Ha S, Masel RI, Waszczuk P, Wieckowski A, Barnard T. Direct formic acid fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2002; 111:83-89.
4. Morse JD. Micro-fuel cell power sources. International Journal of Energy Research 2007; 31:576-602.
5. Ahmed M, Dincer I. A review on methanol crossover in direct methanol fuel cells: challenges and achievements. International Journal of Energy Research 2011; 35:1213-1228.
6. Das S, Kumar P, Dutta K, Kundu PP. Partial sulfonation of PVdF-co-HFP: a preliminary study and characterization for application in direct methanol fuel cell. Applied Energy 2014; 113:169-177.
7. Bullen RA, Arnot TC, Lakeman JB, Walsh FC. Biofuel cells and their development. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2006; 21:2015-2045.
8. Kumar P, Dutta K, Kundu PP. Enhanced performance of direct methanol fuel cells: a study on the combined effect of various supporting electrolytes, flow channel designs and operating temperatures. International Journal of Energy Research 2013. doi:10.1002/er.3034.
9. Cho YK, Donohue TJ, Tejedor I, Anderson MA, McMohan KD, Noguera DR. Development of a solar-powered microbial fuel cell. Journal of Applied Microbiology 2008; 104:640-650.
10. Liu BH, Li ZP. Current status and progress of direct borohydride fuel cell technology development. Journal of Power Sources 2009; 187:291-297.
11. Shukla AK, Raman RK. Methanol-resistant oxygen-reduction catalysts for direct methanol fuel cells. Annual Review of Materials Research 2003; 33:155-168.
12. Joon K. Fuel cells-a 21st century power system. Journal of Power Sources 1998; 71:12-18.
13. Lovley DR. Microbial fuel cells: novel microbial physiologies and engineering approaches. Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2006; 17:327-332.
14. Davis F, Higson SPJ. Biofuel cells-recent advances and applications. Biosensors and Bioelectronics 2007; 22:1224-1235.
15. Rosen MA, Dincer I. On exergy and environmental impact. International Journal of Energy Research 1997; 21:643-654.
16. Mo Z-J, Zhu X-J, Wei L-Y, Cao G-Y. Parameter optimization for a PEMFC model with a hybrid genetic algorithm. International Journal of Energy Research 2006; 30:585-597.
17. Qian W, Wilkinson DP, Shen J, Wang H, Zhang J. Architecture for portable direct liquid fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2006; 154:202-213.
18. Höhlein B, von Andrian S, Grube T, Menzer R. Critical assessment of power trains with fuel-cell systems and different fuels. Journal of Power Sources 2000; 86:243-249.
19. Cheng X, Shi Z, Glass N, Zhang L, Zhang J, Song D, Liu Z-S, Wang H, Shen J. A review of PEM hydrogen fuel cell contamination: impacts, mechanisms, and mitigation. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 165:739-756.
20. Mori D, Hirose K. Recent challenges of hydrogen storage technologies for fuel cell vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2009; 34:4569-4574.
21. Liu JG, Zhao TS, Chen R, Wong CW. The effect of methanol concentration on the performance of a passive DMFC. Electrochemistry Communications 2005; 7:288-294.
22. Dillon R, Srinivasan S, Aricò AS, Antonucci V. International activities in DMFC R&D: status of technologies and potential applications. Journal of Power Sources 2004; 127:112-126.
23. Sv A, Meusinger J. Process analysis of a liquid-feed direct methanol fuel cell system. Journal of Power Sources 2000; 91:193-201.
24. Yao KZ, Karan K, McAuley KB, Oosthuizen P, Peppley B, Xie T. A review of mathematical models for hydrogen and direct methanol polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells. Fuel Cells 2004; 4:3-29.
25. Lindermeir A, Rosenthal G, Kunz U, Hoffmann U. On the question of MEA preparation for DMFCs. Journal of Power Sources 2004; 129:180-187.
26. Firtina I, Guner S, Albostan A. Preparation and characterization of membrane electrode assembly (MEA) for PEMFC. International Journal of Energy Research 2011; 35:146-152.
27. Aricò AS, Creti P, Giordano N, Antonucci V, Antonucci PL, Chuvilin A. Chemical and morphological characterization of a direct methanol fuel cell based on a quaternary Pt-Ru-Sn-W/C anode. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 1996; 26:959-967.
28. Jung H-Y, Cho K-Y, Lee YM, Park J-K, Choi J-H, Sung Y-E. Influence of annealing of membrane electrode assembly (MEA) on performance of direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC). Journal of Power Sources 2007; 163:952-956.
29. Tang H, Wang S, Pana M, Jiang SP, Ruan Y. Performance of direct methanol fuel cells prepared by hot-pressed MEA and catalyst-coated membrane (CCM). Electrochimica Acta 2007; 52:3714-3718.
30. Krishnan NN, Prabhuram J, Hong YT, Kim H-J, Yoon K, Ha H-Y, Lim T-H, Kim S-K. Fabrication of MEA with hydrocarbon based membranes using low temperature decal method for DMFC. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:5647-5655.
31. Wan N, Mao Z, Wang C, Wang G. Performance of an integrated composite membrane electrode assembly in DMFC. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 163:725-730.
32. Kundu PP, Kim BT, Ahn JE, Han HS, Shul YG. Formation and evaluation of semi-IPN of Nafion 117 membrane for direct methanol fuel cell 1. Crosslinked sulfonated polystyrene in the pores of nafion 117. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 171:86-91.
33. 1/carbon nanocomposite using microwave irradiation: a DMFC anode catalyst of high relative performance. Chemistry of Materials 2001; 13:891-900.
34. Baschuk JJ, Li X. Carbon monoxide poisoning of proton exchange membrane fuel cells. International Journal of Energy Research 2001; 25:695-713.
35. Oedegaard A, Hebling C, Schmitz A, Møller-Holst S, Tunold R. Influence of diffusion layer properties on low temperature DMFC. Journal of Power Sources 2004; 127:187-196.
36. Krishnamurthy B, Deepalochani S. Effect of PTFE content on the performance of a direct methanol fuel cell. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2009; 34:446-452.
37. Zhang J, Yin GP, Lai QZ, Wang ZB, Cai KD, Liu P. The influence of anode gas diffusion layer on the performance of low temperature DMFC. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 168:453-8.
38. Jian-hua T, Zhao-yuan S, Jin-song S, Zhong-qiang S. Preparation of water management layer and effects of its composition on performance of PEMFCs. Energy Conversion and Management 2008; 49:1500-1505.
39. Lin C, Wang T, Ye F, Fang Y, Wang X. Effects of microporous layer preparation on the performance of a direct methanol fuel cell. Electrochemistry Communications 2008; 10:255-258.
40. Park J-Y, Kim H-T, Lee ES, Son I-H, Han S. Effect of the porous carbon layer in the cathode gas diffusion media on direct methanol fuel cell performances. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2009; 34:8257-8262.
41. Radhakrishnan V, Haridoss P. Differences in structure and property of carbon paper and carbon cloth diffusion media and their impact on proton exchange membrane fuel cell flow field design. Materials and Design 2011; 32:861-868.
42. Kianimanesh A, Yu B, Yang Q, Freiheit T, Xue D, Park SS. Investigation of bipolar plate geometry on direct methanol fuel cell performance. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2012; 37:18403-18411.
43. Chen W, Liu Y, Xin Q. Evaluation of a compression molded composite bipolar plate for direct methanol fuel cell. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:3783-3788.
44. Kunz HR, Bonville L, Zaffou R, Jiang R, Fenton J. Bipolar plate for fuel cell. US Patent# 8, 097, 385, 2012.
45. Huang I-B. Evaluation of silver-coated stainless steel bipolar plates for fuel cell applications. Journal of Power Sources 2011; 196:7649-7653.
46. Park T, Chang I, Lee YH, Cha SW. Fabrication of bipolar plates based on graphite sheet via stamping method. ECS Transactions 2013; 50:795-804.
47. Mehta V. Joyce Smith Cooper. Review and analysis of PEM fuel cell design and manufacturing. Journal of Power Sources 2003; 114:32-53.
48. Taherian R, Nasr M. Performance and material selection of nanocomposites bipolar plate in proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Int. J. Energy Res. 2013. doi:10.1002/er.3109.
49. Kamarudin SK, Achmad F, Daud WRW. Overview on the application of direct methanol fuel cell (DMFC) for portable electronic devices. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2009; 34:6902-6916.
50. Xu C, Zhao TS, Ye Q. Effect of anode backing layer on the cell performance of a direct methanol fuel cell. Electrochimica Acta 2006; 51:5524-5531.
51. Gibbons RM. Silicon rubber gasket and material. US Patent# 4, 580, 794, 1986.
52. Lai Q-Z, Yin G-P, Wang Z-B. Effect of anode current collector on the performance of passive direct methanol fuel cells. International Journal of Energy Research 2009; 33:719-727.
53. 2 active areas. Electrochimica Acta 2012; 85:693-699.
54. Li W, Zhou W, Li H, Zhou Z, Zhou B, Sun G, Xin Q. Nano-structured Pt-Fe/C as cathode catalyst in direct methanol fuel cell. Electrochimica Acta 2004; 49:1045-1055.
55. Mazumder V, Lee Y, Sun S. Recent development of active nanoparticle catalysts for fuel cell reactions. Advanced Functional Materials 2010; 20:1224-1231.
56. Liu F, Wang C-Y. Mixed potential in a direct methanol fuel cell: modeling and experiments. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2007; 154:B514-B522.
57. Li W, Liang C, Zhou W, Qiu J, Zhou Z, Sun G, Xin Q. Preparation and characterization of multiwalled carbon nanotube-supported platinum for cathode catalysts of direct methanol fuel cells. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2003; 107:6292-6299.
58. Yuan W, Scott K, Cheng H. Fabrication and evaluation of Pt-Fe alloys as methanol tolerant cathode materials for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2006; 163:323-329.
59. Zainoodin AM, Kamarudin SK, Daud WRW. Electrode in direct methanol fuel cells. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:4606-4621.
60. Zhao Y, Zhan L, Tian J, Nie S, Ning Z. Enhanced electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol on Pd/polypyrrole-graphene in alkaline medium. Electrochimica Acta 2011; 56:1967-1972.
61. Li Y, Gao W, Ci L, Wang C, Ajayan PM. Catalytic performance of Pt nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide for methanol electro-oxidation. Carbon 2010; 48:1124-1130.
62. Wu Y-N, Liao S-J, Guo H-F, Hao X-Y. High-performance Pd at PtRu/C catalyst for the anodic oxidation of methanol prepared by decorating Pd/C with a PtRu shell. Journal of Power Sources 2013; 224:66-71.
63. Chakraborty D, Chorkendorff IB, Johannessen T. Metamorphosis of the mixed phase PtRu anode catalyst for direct methanol fuel cells after exposure of methanol: in situ and ex situ characterizations. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 173:110-120.
64. Vidaković T, Christov M, Sundmacher K. Rate expression for electrochemical oxidation of methanol on a direct methanol fuel cell anode. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 2005; 580:105-121.
65. Schultz T, Krewer U, Vidaković T, Pfafferodt M, Christov M, Sundmacher K. Systematic analysis of the direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 2007; 37:111-119.
66. Lin Y, Cui X, Ye X. Electrocatalytic reactivity for oxygen reduction of palladium-modified carbon nanotubes synthesized in supercritical fluid. Electrochemistry Communications 2005; 7:267-274.
67. Shukla AK, Raman RK, Scott K. Advances in mixed-reactant fuel cells. Fuel Cells 2005; 5:436-447.
68. Aricò AS, Baglio V, Blasi AD, Modica E, Antonucci PL, Antonucci V. Analysis of the high-temperature methanol oxidation behaviour at carbon-supported Pt-Ru catalysts. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 2003; 557:167-176.
69. Moore JT, Chu D, Jiang R, Deluga GA, Lukehart CM. Synthesis and characterization of Os and Pt-Os/carbon nanocomposites and their relative performance as methanol electrooxidation catalysts. Chemistry of Materials 2003; 15:1119-1124.
70. Colmati F, Antolini E, Gonzalez ER. Pt-Sn/C electrocatalysts for methanol oxidation synthesized by reduction with formic acid. Electrochimica Acta 2005; 50:5496-5503.
71. Kwiatkowski KC, Milne SB, Mukerjee S, Lukehart CM. Synthesis of Pt-Mo/carbon nanocomposites from single-source molecular precursors: a (1:1) PtMo/C PEMFC anode catalyst exhibiting CO tolerance. Journal of Cluster Science 2005; 16:251-272.
72. Kua J, Goddard WA III. Oxidation of methanol on 2nd and 3rd row group VIII transition metals (Pt, Ir, Os, Pd, Rh, and Ru): application to direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of the American Chemical Society 1999; 121:10928-10941.
73. Aricò AS, Poltarzewski Z, Kim H, Morana A, Giordano N, Antonucci V. Investigation of a carbon-supported quaternary Pt-Ru-Sn-W catalyst for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 1995; 55:159-166.
74. Chu YH, Shul YG. Combinatorial investigation of Pt-Ru-Sn alloys as an anode electrocatalysts for direct alcohol fuel cells. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:11261-11270.
75. Steigerwalt ES, Deluga GA, Lukehart CM. Pt-Ru/carbon fiber nanocomposites: synthesis, characterization, and performance as anode catalysts of direct methanol fuel cells. A search for exceptional performance. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2002; 106:760-766.
76. Dinh HN, Ren X, Garzon FH, Zelenay P, Gottesfeld S. Electrocatalysis in direct methanol fuel cells: in-situ probing of PtRu anode catalyst surfaces. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 2000; 491:222-233.
77. Lizcano-Valbuena WH, Paganin VA, Gonzalez ER. Methanol electro-oxidation on gas diffusion electrodes prepared with Pt-Ru/C catalysts. Electrochimica Acta 2002; 47:3715-3722.
78. Mu Y, Liang H, Hu J, Jiang L, Wan L. Controllable Pt nanoparticle deposition on carbon nanotubes as an anode catalyst for direct methanol fuel cells. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2005; 109:22212-22216.
79. Yoo E, Okada T, Kizuka T, Nakamura J. Effect of carbon substrate materials as a Pt-Ru catalyst support on the performance of direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2008; 180:221-226.
80. Schlange A, dos Santos AR, Hasse B, Etzold BJM, Kunz U, Turek T. Titanium carbide-derived carbon as a novel support for platinum catalysts in direct methanol fuel cell application. Journal of Power Sources 2012; 199:22-28.
81. 2/CNT supported Pt and PtRu nanocatalysts for direct methanol fuel cells. Langmuir 2009; 25:7711-7717.
82. Xu C, Li Q, Liu Y, Wang J, Geng H. Hierarchical nanoporous PtFe alloy with multimodal size distributions and its catalytic performance toward methanol electrooxidation. Langmuir 2012; 28:1886-1892.
83. Steigerwalt ES, Deluga GA, Cliffel DE, Lukehart CM. A Pt-Ru/graphitic carbon nanofiber nanocomposite exhibiting high relative performance as a direct-methanol fuel cell anode catalyst. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2001; 105:8097-8101.
84. Xu K, Pierce DT, Li A, Zhao JX. Nanocatalysts in direct methanol fuel cell applications. Synthesis and Reactivity in Inorganic, Metal-Organic, and Nano-Metal Chemistry 2008; 38:394-399.
85. Serov A, Kwak C. Review of non-platinum anode catalysts for DMFC and PEMFC application. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2009; 90:313-320.
86. Liu H, Song C, Zhang L, Zhang J, Wang H, Wilkinson DP. A review of anode catalysis in the direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 2006; 155:95-110.
87. Lu Y, Reddy RG. The electrochemical behavior of cobalt phthalocyanine/platinum as methanol-resistant oxygen-reduction electrocatalysts for DMFC. Electrochimica Acta 2007; 52:2562-2569.
88. Baranton S, Coutanceau C, Roux C, Hahn F, Léger J-M. Oxygen reduction reaction in acid medium at iron phthalocyanine dispersed on high surface area carbon substrate: tolerance to methanol, stability and kinetics. Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry 2005; 577:223-234.
89. Serov AA, Min M, Chai G, Han S, Seo SJ, Park Y, Kim H, Kwak C. Electroreduction of oxygen over iron macrocyclic catalysts for DMFC applications. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 2009; 39:1509-1516.
90. Meng H, Shen PK. The beneficial effect of the addition of tungsten carbides to Pt catalysts on the oxygen electroreduction. Chemical Communications 2005:4408-4410.
91. Meng H, Shen PK. Tungsten carbide nanocrystal promoted Pt/C electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B 2005; 109:22705-22709.
92. Salgado JRC, Antolini E, Gonzalez ER. Carbon supported Pt-Co alloys as methanol-resistant oxygen-reduction electrocatalysts for direct methanol fuel cells. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental 2005; 57:283-290.
93. Antolini E, Salgado JRC, dos Santos AM, Gonzalez ER. Carbon-supported Pt-Ni alloys prepared by the borohydride method as electrocatalysts for DMFCs. Electrochemical and Solid-State Letters 2005; 8:A226-A230.
94. Antolini E, Salgado JRC, Santos LGRA, Garcia G, Ticianelli EA, Pastor E, Gonzalez ER. Carbon supported Pt-Cr alloys as oxygen-reduction catalysts for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 2006; 36:355-362.
95. Yang H, Alonso-Vante N, Lamy C, Akins DL. High methanol tolerance of carbon-supported Pt-Cr alloy nanoparticle electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2005; 152:A704-A709.
96. Lee J-W, Popov BN. Ruthenium-based electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction-a review. Journal of Solid State Electrochemistry 2007; 11:1355-1364.
97. Li W, Xin Q, Yan Y. Nanostructured Pt-Fe/C cathode catalysts for direct methanol fuel cell: the effect of catalyst composition. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:2530-2538.
98. Wang T, Lin C, Ye F, Fang Y, Li J, Wang X. MEA with double-layered catalyst cathode to mitigate methanol crossover in DMFC. Electrochemistry Communications 2008; 10:1261-1263.
99. Suo C, Liu X, Tang XC, Zhang Y, Zhang B, Zhang P. A novel MEA architecture for improving the performance of a DMFC. Electrochemistry Communications 2008; 10:1606-1609.
100. Novoselov KS, Geim AK, Morozov SV, Jiang D, Zhang Y, Dubonos SV, Grigorieva IV, Firsov AA. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science 2004; 306:666-669.
101. Geim AK, Novoselov KS. The rise of graphene. Nature Materials 2007; 6:183-191.
102. Li D, Müller MB, Gilje S, Kaner RB, Wallace GG. Processable aqueous dispersions of graphene nanosheets. Nature Nanotechnology 2008; 3:101-105.
103. Stankovich S, Dikin DA, Dommett GHB, Kohlhaas KM, Zimney EJ, Stach EA, Piner RD, Nguyen ST, Ruoff RS. Graphene-based composite materials. Nature 2006; 442:282-286.
104. Xu C, Wang X, Zhu J. Graphene-metal particle nanocomposites. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2008; 112:19841-19845.
105. Muszynski R, Seger B, Kamat PV. Decorating graphene sheets with gold nanoparticles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2008; 112:5263-5266.
106. Huang H, Chen H, Sun D, Wang X. Graphene nanoplate-Pt composite as a high performance electrocatalyst for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2012; 204:46-52.
107. Sharma S, Pollet BG. Support materials for PEMFC and DMFC electrocatalysts-a review. Journal of Power Sources 2012; 208:96-119.
108. He D, Zeng C, Xu C, Cheng N, Li H, Mu S, Pan M. Polyaniline-functionalized carbon nanotube supported platinum catalysts. Langmuir 2011; 27:5582-5588.
109. Xu YT, Lin SJ, Peng XL, Luo W-A, Gal J-Y, Dai LZ. In situ chemical fabrication of polyaniline/multi-walled carbon nanotubes composites as supports of Pt for methanol electrooxidation. Science China Chemistry 2010; 53:2006-2014.
110. Cui Z, Guo CX, Li CM. Self-assembled phosphomolybdic acid-polyaniline-graphene composite-supported efficient catalyst towards methanol oxidation. Journal of Materials Chemistry A 2013; 1:6687-6692.
111. Bai Z, Shi M, Niu L, Li Z, Jiang L, Yang L. A facile preparation of Pt-Ru nanoparticles supported on polyaniline modified fullerene [60] for methanol oxidation. Journal of Nanoparticle Research 2013; 15:2061(1)-2061(7).
112. Reddy ALM, Rajalakshmi N, Ramaprabhu S. Cobalt-polypyrrole-multiwalled carbon nanotube catalysts for hydrogen and alcohol fuel cells. Carbon 2008; 46:2-11.
113. Gharibi H, Kakaei K, Zhiani M, Taghiabadi MM. Effect of polyaniline-doped trifluoromethane sulfonic acid nanofiber composite film thickness on electrode for methanol oxidation. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2011; 36:13301-13309.
114. Zhiani M, Gharibi H, Kakaei K. Performing of novel nanostructure MEA based on polyaniline modified anode direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 2012; 210:42-46.
115. Bashyam R, Zelenay P. A class of non-precious metal composite catalysts for fuel cells. Nature 2006; 443:63-66.
116. Unni SM, Dhavale VM, Pillai VK, Kurungot S. High Pt utilization electrodes for polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells by dispersing Pt particles formed by a precipitation method on carbon "polished" with polypyrrole. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 2010; 114:14654-14661.
117. Qu B, Xu Y-T, Lin S-J, Zheng Y-F, Dai L-Z. Fabrication of Pt nanoparticles decorated PPy-MWNTs composites and their electrocatalytic activity for methanol oxidation. Synthetic Metals 2010; 160:732-742.
118. Kim Y-M, Park K-W, Choi J-H, Park I-S, Sung Y-E. A Pd-impregnated nanocomposite Nafion membrane for use in high-concentration methanol fuel in DMFC. Electrochemistry Communications 2003; 5:571-574.
119. Baxter SF, Battaglia VS, White RE. Methanol fuel cell model: anode. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 1999; 146:437-447.
120. Lee K, Savadogo O, Ishihara A, Mitsushima S, Kamiya N, Ota K. Methanol-tolerant oxygen reduction electrocatalysts based on Pd-3D transition metal alloys for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2006; 153:A20-A24.
121. Lizcano-Valbuena WH, Paganin VA, Leite CAP, Galembeck F, Gonzalez ER. Catalysts for DMFC: relation between morphology and electrochemical performance. Electrochimica Acta 2003; 48:3869-3878.
122. Gerteisen D. Transient and steady-state analysis of catalyst poisoning and mixed potential formation in direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2010; 195:6719-6731.
123. Bauer B, Roziere J, Jones D, Alberti G, Casciola M, Pica M. Ion conducting composite membrane materials containing an optionally modified zirconium phosphate dispersed in a polymeric matrix, method for preparation of the membrane material and its use. US Patent# 7, 108, 935, 2006.
124. Rajalakshmi N, Dhathathreyan KS. Present Trends in Fuel Cell Technology Development. Nova Science Publishers: New York, 2008.
125. Lu GQ, Wang CY. Electrochemical and flow characterization of a direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 2004; 134:33-40.
126. Silva VS, Weisshaar S, Reissner R, Ruffmann B, Vetter S, Mendes A, Madeira LM, Nunes S. Performance and efficiency of a DMFC using non-fluorinated composite membranes operating at low/medium temperatures. Journal of Power Sources 2005; 145:485-494.
127. Selahattin C, Mat MD. Measurement and estimation of species distribution in a direct methanol fuel cell. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:2151-2159.
128. Heinzel A, Barragán VM. A review of the state-of-the-art of the methanol crossover in direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 1999; 84:70-74.
129. Yang H, Zhao TS, Ye Q. Pressure drop behavior in the anode flow field of liquid feed direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2005; 142:117-124.
130. Ren X, Springer TE, Gottesfeld S. Water and methanol uptakes in Nafion membranes and membrane effects on direct methanol cell performance. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2000; 147:92-98.
131. Kordesch K, Hacker V, Bachhiesl U. Direct methanol-air fuel cells with membranes plus circulating electrolyte. Journal of Power Sources 2001; 96:200-203.
132. Gurau B, Smotkin ES. Methanol crossover in direct methanol fuel cells: a link between power and energy density. Journal of Power Sources 2002; 112:339-352.
133. Zhang J, Wang Y. Modeling the effects of methanol crossover on the DMFC. Fuel Cells 2004; 4:90-95.
134. Eccarius S, Garcia BL, Hebling C, Weidner JW. Experimental validation of a methanol crossover model in DMFC applications. Journal of Power Sources 2008; 179:723-733.
135. Casalegno A, Marchesi R. DMFC performance and methanol cross-over: experimental analysis and model validation. Journal of Power Sources 2008; 185:318-330.
136. Wang ZH, Wang CY. Mathematical modeling of liquid-feed direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2003; 150:A508-A519.
137. Garcìa BL, Sethuraman VA, Weidner JW, White RE, Dougal R. Mathematical model of a direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology 2004; 1:43-48.
138. Liu W, Wang C-Y. Three-dimensional simulations of liquid feed direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2007; 154:B352-B361.
139. Liu W, Wang C-Y. Modeling water transport in liquid feed direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 164:189-195.
140. Seo SH, Lee CS. Impedance characteristics of the direct methanol fuel cell under various operating conditions. Energy and Fuels 2008; 22:1204-1211.
141. Scott K, Taama W, Cruickshank J. Performance and modelling of a direct methanol solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 1997; 65:159-171.
142. Silva VSF, Silva VB, Reissner R, Vetter S, Mendes A, Madeira LM, Nunes SP. Non-fluorinated membranes thickness effect on the DMFC performance. Separation Science and Technology 2008; 43:1917-1932.
143. Meyers JP, Newman J. Simulation of the direct methanol fuel cell III. Design and optimization. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2002; 149:A729-A735.
144. Meyers JP, Newman J. Simulation of the direct methanol fuel cell II. Modeling and data analysis of transport and kinetic phenomena. Journal of the Electrochemical Society 2002; 149:A718-A728.
145. Kang K, Lee G, Gwak G, Choi Y, Ju H. Development of an advanced MEA to use high-concentration methanol fuel in a direct methanol fuel cell system. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2012; 37:6285-6291.
146. Park Y-C, Kim D-H, Lim S, Kim S-K, Peck D-H, Jung D-H. Design of a MEA with multi-layer electrodes for high concentration methanol DMFCs. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 2012; 37:4717-4727.
147. Lufrano F, Baglio V, Blasi OD, Staiti P, Antonucci V, Aricò AS. Design of efficient methanol impermeable membranes for fuel cell application. Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics 2012; 14:2718-2726.
148. Xu C, Zhao TS, He YL. Effect of cathode gas diffusion layer on water transport and cell performance in direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2007; 171:268-274.
149. Yang H, Zhao TS, Ye Q. Addition of non-reacting gases to the anode flow field of DMFCs leading to improved performance. Electrochemistry Communications 2004; 6:1098-1103.
150. Danilov VA, Lim J, Moon II, Chang H. Three-dimensional, two-phase, CFD model for the design of a direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 2006; 162:992-1002.
151. Argyropoulos P, Scott K, Taama WM. Gas evolution and power performance in direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Applied Electrochemistry 1999; 29:661-669.
152. Yang Y, Liang YC. Modelling and analysis of a direct methanol fuel cell with under-rib mass transport and two-phase flow at the anode. Journal of Power Sources 2009; 194:712-729.
153. Rice J, Faghri A. A transient, multi-phase and multi-component model of a new passive DMFC. International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 2006; 49:4804-4820.
154. Yang H, Zhao TS. Effect of anode flow field design on the performance of liquid feed direct methanol fuel cells. Electrochimica Acta 2005; 50:3243-3252.
155. Argyropoulos P, Scott K, Taama WM. Carbon dioxide evolution patterns in direct methanol fuel cells. Electrochimica Acta 1999; 44:3575-3584.
156. Seo SH, Lee CS. Effect of operating parameters on the direct methanol fuel cell using air or oxygen as an oxidant gas. Energy and Fuels 2008; 22:1212-1219.
157. Yuan Z, Zhang Y, Li Z, Zhao Y, Liu X. Investigation of mass transport and cell performance on μDMFC with different anode flow fields. International Journal of Energy Research 2013. doi:10.1002/er.3013.
158. Hsieh S-S, Wu H-C, Her B-S. A novel design for a flow field configuration, of a direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 2010; 195:3224-3230.
159. Seo SH, Lee CS. A study on the overall efficiency of direct methanol fuel cell by methanol crossover current. Applied Energy 2010; 87:2597-2604.
160. Silva VS, Schirmer J, Reissner R, Ruffmann B, Silva H, Mendes A, Madeira LM, Nunes SP. Proton electrolyte membrane properties and direct methanol fuel cell performance II. Fuel cell performance and membrane properties effects. Journal of Power Sources 2005; 140:41-49.
161. Jung G-B, Su A, Tu C-H, Weng F-B. Effect of operating parameters on the DMFC performance. Journal of Fuel Cell Science and Technology 2005; 2:81-85.
162. Aricò AS, Cretì P, Antonucci PL, Cho J, Kim H, Antonucci V. Optimization of operating parameters of a direct methanol fuel cell and physico-chemical investigation of catalyst-electrolyte interface. Electrochimica Acta 1998; 43:3719-3729.
163. Scott K, Taama WM, Argyropoulos P, Sundmacher K. The impact of mass transport and methanol crossover on the direct methanol fuel cell. Journal of Power Sources 1999; 83:204-216.
164. Krewer U, Yoon H-K, Kim H-T. Basic model for membrane electrode assembly design for direct methanol fuel cells. Journal of Power Sources 2008; 175:760-772.
165. Dutta K, Kumar P, Das S, Kundu PP. Utilization of conducting polymers in fabricating polymer electrolyte membranes for application in direct methanol fuel cells. Polymer Reviews 2014; 54:1-32.
166. Dutta K, Das S, Kumar P, Kundu PP. Polymer electrolyte membrane with high selectivity ratio for direct methanol fuel cells: A preliminary study based on blends of partially sulfonated polymers polyaniline and PVdF-co-HFP. Applied Energy 2014; 118:183-191.