Pathogens in Water and Biofilms

Microbiology of Waterborne Diseases: Microbiological Aspects and Risks: Second Edition

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 3-32

  Nocker, Andreas ^a   Burr, Mark ^b   Camper, Anne ^b  

^a CRANFIELD UNIVERSITY   (United Kingdom)

^b MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Attachment; Biofilm; Disinfection; Fitness; Heterogeneity; Infectivity; Internalization; Pathogenicity; Pathogens; Stress resistance

Indexed keywords

EID: 84902617526     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-415846-7.00001-9     Document Type: Chapter

References (146)

1. Abd H., Johansson T., Golovliov I., et al. Survival and growth of Francisella tularensis in Acanthamoeba castellanii. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69:600-606.
2. Abd H., Weintraub A., Sandstrom G. Intracellular survival and replication of Vibrio cholerae O139 in aquatic free-living amoebae. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 7:1003-1008.
3. Abd H., Johansson T., Golovliov I., et al. Survival and growth of Francisella tularensis in Acanthamoeba castellanii. 2003, 69:600-606.
4. Abd H., Saee d A., Weintraub A., et al. Vibrio cholerae O1 strains are facultative intracellular bacteria, able to survive and multiply symbiotically inside the aquatic free-living amoeba Acanthamoeba castellanii. FEMS Microbiol. Ecol. 2007, 60(1):33-39.
5. Al-Azemi A., Fielder M.D., Abuknesha R.A., Price R.G. Effects of chelating agent and environmental stresses on microbial biofilms: relevance to clinical microbiology. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2010, 110:1307-1313.
6. Alam M., Sultana M., Nair G.B., et al. Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae in the aquatic environment of Mathbaria, Bangladesh. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72:2849-2855.
7. Alam M., Sultana M., Nair G.B., et al. Viable but nonculturable Vibrio cholerae O1 in biofilms in the aquatic environment and their role in cholerae transmission. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2007, 104:17801-17806.
8. Alsam S., Jeong S.R., Sissons J., et al. Escherichia coli interactions with Acanthamoeba: asymbiosis with environmental and clinical implications. J. Med. Microbiol. 2006, 55:689-694.
9. An D., Parsek M.R. The promise and peril of transcriptional profiling in biofilm communities. Curr. Opin. Microbiol. 2007, 10:292-296.
10. Angles M.L., Chandy J.P., Cox P.T., et al. Implications of biofilm-associated waterborne Cryptosporidium oocysts for the water industry. Trends. Parasitol. 2007, 23:352-356.
11. Armon R., Starosvetsky J., Arbel T., Green M. Survival of Legionella pneumophila and Salmonella typhimurium in biofilm systems. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35:293-300.
12. Axelsson-Olsson D., Waldenstrom J., Broman T., et al. Protozoan Acanthamoeba polyphaga as a potential reservoir for Campylobacter jejuni. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:987-992.
13. Azevedo N.F., Vieira M.J., Keevil C.W. Establishment of a continuous model system to study Helicobacter pylori survival in potable water biofilms. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47(5):155-160.
14. Azevedo N.F., Pacheco A.P., Keevil C.W., Vieira M.J. Adhesion of water stressed Helicobacter pylori to abiotic surfaces. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2006, 101(3):718-724.
15. Azevedo N.F., et al. Shear stress, temperature, and inoculation concentration influence the adhesion of water-stressed Helicobacter pylori to stainless steel 304 and polypropylene. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72(4):2936-2941.
16. Barker J., Humphrey T.J., Brown M.W.R. Survival of Escherichia coli O157 in a soil protozoan: implications for disease. FEMS Microbiol. Letters 1999, 173:291-295.
17. Barker J., Brown M.R.W. Trojan horses of the microbial world: protozoa and the survival of bacterial pathogens in the environment. Microbiology 1994, 140(6):1253-1259.
18. Bauman W.J., Nocker A., Jones W.L., Camper A.K. Retention of a model pathogen in a porous media biofilm. Biofouling 2009, 25:229-240.
19. Berry D., Xi C., Raskin L. Microbial Ecology of drinking water distribution systems. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2006, 17:1-6.
20. Blokesch M., Schoolnik G.K. Serogroup conversion of Vibrio cholerae in aquatic reservoirs. PLoS Pathogens 2007, 3:e81.
21. Borucki M.K., Peppin J.D., White D., Loge F., Call D.R. Variation in biofilm formation among strains of Listeria monocytogenes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2003, 69:7336-7342.
22. Boyer M., Yutin N., Pagnier I., et al. Giant Marseillevirus highlights the role of amoebae as a melting pot in emergence of chimeric microorganisms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2009, 106(51):21848-21853.
23. Braganra S.M., Azevedo N.F., Simões L.C., et al. Use of fluorescent in situ hybridisation for the visualisation of Helicobacter pylori in real drinking water biofilms. Water Sci. Technol. 2007, 55:387-393.
24. Brieland J.K., Fantone J.C., Remick D.G., LeGendre M., McClain M., Engleberg N.C. The role of Legionella pneumophila-infected Hartmannella vermiformis as an infectious particle in a murine model of Legionnaire's disease. Infect. Immun. 1997, 65:5330-5333.
25. Burghardt M.R., Bergmann H. Acanthamoeba, naturally intracellularly infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, after their isolation from a microbiologically contaminated drinking water system in a hospital. Zentralbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 1995, 196(6):532-544.
26. Buswell C.M., Herlihy Y.M., Lawrence L.M., et al. Extended survival and persistence of Campylobacter spp. in water and aquatic biofilms and their detection by immunofluorescent-antibody and -rRNA staining. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64:733-741.
27. Camper A.K., Warnecke M., Jones W.L., McFeters G.A. Pathogens in model distribution system biofilms 1999, American Water Works Association Research Foundation, Denver.
28. Camper A.K. Involvement of humic substanes in regrowth. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 2004, 92(3):355-364.
29. Chauret C., Volk C., Creason R., Jarosh J., Robinson J., Warnes C. Detection of Aeromonas hydrophila in a drinking water distribution system: a field and pilot study. Can. J. Microbiol. 2001, 47:782-786.
30. Chen X., Stewart P.S. Chlorine penetration into artificial biofilm is limited by a reaction-diffusion interaction. Environ. Sci. Technol. 1996, 30:2078-2083.
31. Cirillo J.D., Falkow S., Tompkins L.S., Bermudez L.E. Interaction of Mycobacterium avium with environmental amoebae enhances virulence. Infect. Immun. 1997, 65(9):3759-3767.
32. Cole S.P., Harwood J., Lee R., et al. Characterization of monospecies biofilm formation by Helicobacter pylori. J. Bacteriol. 2004, 186(10):3124-3132.
33. Colwell R.R., Huq A., Islam M.S., et al. Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2003, 100(3):1051-1055.
34. Costerton J.W., Stewart P.S., Greenberg E.P. Bacterial biofilms: a common cause of persistent infections. Science 1999, 284:1318-1322.
35. Danes L., Cerva L. Survival of polioviruses and echoviruses in Acanthamoeba castellanii cultivated in vitro. J. Hyg. Epidemiol. Microbiol. Immunol. 1981, 25(2):169-174.
36. Davey M.E., O'toole G.A. Microbial biofilms: from ecology to molecular genetics. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 2000, 64(4):847-867.
37. Davison W.M., Pitts B., Stewart P.S. Spatial and temporal patterns of biocide action against Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilms. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother 2010, 54(7):2920-2927.
38. Declerck P., Behets J., van Hoef V., Ollevier F. Detection of Legionella spp. and some of their amoeba hosts in floating biofilms from anthropogenic and natural aquatic environments. Water Res. 2007, 41:3159-3167.
39. Declerck P., Behets J., van Hoef V., Ollevier F. Replication of Legionella pneumophila in floating biofilms. Curr. Microbiol. 2007, 55:435-440.
40. Declerck P., Behets J., Margineanu A., van Hoef V., De Keersmaecker B., Ollevier F. (2009). Replication of Legionella pneumophila in biofilms of water distribution pipes. Microbiol. Res. 2009, 164(6):593-603.
41. Donlan R.M. Biofilms: microbial life on surfaces. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8:881-890.
42. Donlan R., Murga R., Carpenter J., et al. Monochloramine disinfection of biofilm-associated Legionella pneumophila in a potable water model system. Legionella 2002, 406-410. ASM Press, Washington, DC. R. Marre, Y. Abu Kwaik, C. Bartlett (Eds.).
43. Doolittle M.M., Cooney J.J., Caldwell D.E. Lytic infection of Escherichia coli biofilms by bacteriophage T4. Can. J. Microbiol. 1995, 41(1):12-18.
44. Ducluzeau R., Nicolas J.L., Gaplin J.V., Raidaud P. Influence of autochthonous bacteria in the longevity of Escherichia coli in bottled mineral water. Sciences Des. Aliments. 1984, 4:585-594.
45. Elvers K.T., Leeming K., Lappin-Scott H.M. Binary and mixed population biofilms: time-lapse image analysis and disinfection with biocides. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 2002, 29(6):331-338.
46. Falkinham J.O., Norton C.D., LeChevallier M.W. Factors influencing numbers of Mycobacterium avium, Mycobacterium intracellulare, and other mycobacteria in drinking water distribution systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2001, 67:1225-1231.
47. Faruque S.M., Biswas K., Edden S.M., et al. Transmissibility of cholerae: In vivo-formed biofilms and their relationships to infectivity and persistence in the environment. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2006, 103:6350-6355.
48. Faruque S.M., Naser I.B., Islam M.J., et al. Seasonal epidemics of cholerae inversely correlate with the prevalence of environmental cholerae phages. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2005, 102:1702-1707.
49. Faruque S.M., Naser I.B., Islam M.J., et al. Self-limiting nature of seasonal cholerae epidemics: role of host-mediated amplification of phage. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 2005, 102:6119-6124.
50. Flemming H.C., Percival S.L., Walker J.T. Contamination potential of biofilms in water distribution systems. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply 2002, 2:271-280.
51. Flemming H.C., Neu T.R., Wozniak D.J. The EPS matrix: the 'house of biofilm cells'. J. Bacteriol. 2007, 189(22):7945-7947.
52. Fritsche T.R., Gautom R.K., Seyedirashti S., et al. Occurrence of bacterial endosymbiontsin Acanthamoeba spp. isolated from corneal and environmental specimens and contact lenses. J. Clin. Microbiol. 1993, 31:1122-1126.
53. Gagnon G.A., Rand J.L., O'leary K.C., Rygel A.C., Chauret C., Andrews R.C. Disinfectant efficacy of chlorite and chlorine dioxide in drinking water biofilms. Water Res. 2005, 39(9):1809-1817.
54. Garny K., Neu T., Horn H. Sloughing and limited substrate conditions trigger-filamentous growth in heterotrophic biofilms - measurements in flow-through tube reactor. Chem. Eng. Sci. 2009, 64:2723-2732.
55. Gaze W.H., Burroughs N., Gallagher M.P., Wellington E.M. Interactions between Salmonella typhimurium and Acanthamoeba polyphaga, and observation of a new mode of intracellular growth within contractile vacuoles. Microb. Ecol. 2003, 46:358-369.
56. Gião M.S., Azevedo N.F., Wilks S.A., Vieira M.J., Keevil C.W. Persistence of Helicobacter pylori in heterotrophic drinking-water biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74(19):5898-5904.
57. Greub G., Raoult D. Microorganisms resistant to free-living amoebae. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 2004, 17:413-433.
58. Geier H., Mostowy S., Cangelosi G.A., Behr M.A., Ford T.E. Autoinducer-2 triggers the oxidative stress response in Mycobacterium avium, leading to biofilm formation. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74:1798-1804.
59. Goodgame R.W., Genta R.M., White A.C., Chappell C.L. Intensity of infection in AIDS-associated cryptosporidiosis. J. Infect. Dis. 1993, 167(3):704-709.
60. Harb O.S., Gao L.Y., Abu Kwaik Y. From protozoa to mammalian cells: a new paradigm in the life cycle of intracellular bacterial pathogens. Environ. Microbiol. 2000, 2(3):251-265.
61. Havelaar A.H., Versteegh J.F.M., During M. The presence of Aeromonas in drinking water supplies in the Netherlands. Zentralblatt fur Hygiene und Umweltmedizin 1990, 190:236-256.
62. Heinz E., Kolarov I., Kastner C., et al. An Acanthamoeba sp. containing two phylogenetically different bacterial endosymbionts. Environ. Microbiol. 2007, 9:1604-1609.
63. Helmi K., Skraber S., Gantzer C., Willame R., Hoffmann L., Cauchie H.M. Interactions of Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, vaccinal poliovirus type 1, and bacteriophages phiX174 and MS2 with a drinking water biofilm and a wastewater biofilm. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 74(7):2079-2088.
64. Hindré T., Brüggemann H., Buchrieser C., Héchard Y. Transcriponal profiling of Legionella pneumophila biofilm cells and the influence of iron on biofilm formation. Microbiology 2008, 154(1):30-41.
65. Howard K., Inglis T.J.J. Disinfection of Burkholderia pseudomallei in potable water. Water Res. 2005, 39:1085-1092.
66. Howe A.D., Forster S., Morton S., et al. Cryptosporidium oocysts in a water supply associated with a cryptosporidiosis outbreak. Emerg. Infect. Dis. 2002, 8(6):619-624.
67. Huq A., Yunus M., Sohel S.S., et al. Simple Sari cloth filtration of water is sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh. mBio 2010, 1(1). e00034-10.
68. Huq A., Whitehouse C.A., Grim C.J., et al. Biofilms in water, its role and impact in human disease transmission. Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 2008, 19:244-247.
69. Huq A., Sack R.B., Nizam A., et al. Critical factors influencing the occurrence of Vibrio cholerae in the environment of Bangladesh. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:4645-4654.
70. Huq A., Colwell R.R., Rahman R., et al. Detection of Vibrio cholerae O1 in the aquatic environment by fluorescent-monoclonal antibody and culture methods. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1990, 56(8):2370-2373.
71. Huq A., Xu B., Chowdhury M., et al. A simple filtration method to remove plankton-associated Vibrio cholera in raw water supplies in developing countries. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1996, 62:2508-2512.
72. Huws S.A., Smith A.W., Enright M.C., et al. Amoebae promote persistence of epidemic strains of MRSA. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 8:1130-1133.
73. Hwang M.G., Katayama H., Ohgaki S. Effect of intracellular resuscitation of Legionella pneumophila in Acanthamoeba polyphaga cells on the antimicrobial properties of silver and copper. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2006, 40:7434-7439.
74. Islam M.S., Hasan M.K., Miah M.A., Yunus M., Zaman K., Albert M.J. Isolation of Vibrio cholerae O139 synonym Bengal from the aquatic environment in Bangladesh: implications for disease transmission. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1994, 60:1684-1686.
75. Johansen T.B., Agdestein A., Olsen I., et al. Biofilm formation by Mycobacterium avium isolates originating from humans, swine and birds. BMC Microbiol. 2009, 9:59.
76. Kamruzzaman M., Udden S.M., Cameron D.E., et al. Quorum-regulated biofilms enhance the development of conditionally viable, environmental Vibrio cholerae. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2010, 107(4):1588-1593.
77. Keevil C.W. Rapid detection of biofilms and adherent pathogens using scanning confocal laser microscopy and episcopic differential interference contrast microscopy. Water Sci. Technol. 2003, 47(5):105-116.
78. Kilvington S., Price J. Survival of Legionella pneumophila within cysts of Acanthamoeba polyphaga following chlorine exposure. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 1990, 68:519-525.
79. Klayman B.J., Volden P.A., Steward P.S., Camper A.K. Escherichia coli O157:H7 requires colonizing partner to adhere and persist in a capillary flow cell. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43(6):2105-2111.
80. Långmark J., Storey M.V., Ashbolt N.J., Stenström T. Accumulation and fate of microorganisms and microspheres in biofilms formed in a pilot-scale water distribution system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:706-712.
81. Långmark J., Storey M.V., Ashbolt N.J., Stenström T.A. Accumulation and fate of microorganisms and microspheres in biofilms formed in a pilot-scale water distribution system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71:706-712.
82. Larsson S., Mezule L., Juhna T. Survival of E.coli in drinking water biofilm: the application of FISH technique. Techneau. report D 2008, 3.6.8.1.
83. Larsson S., Mezule L., Juhna T. Applicability of biofilm sampling for detection of pathogens in drinking water distribution networks. Techneau. report D 2009, 3.6.8.3.
84. La Scola B., Audic S., Robert C., et al. A giant virus in amoebae. Science 2003, 299(5615):2033.
85. LeChevallier M.W., Babcock T.M., Lee R.G. Examination and characterization of distribution system biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1987, 53:2714-2724.
86. Leclerc H. Relationships between common water bacteria and pathogens in drinking water. Heterotrophic plate counts and drinking-water safety 2003, UK. IWA Publishing, London.
87. Lewis K. Riddle of biofilm resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2001, 45:999-1007.
88. Lewis K., Spoering A., Kaldalu N., et al. Persisters: specialized cells responsible for biofilm tolerance to antimicrobial agents. Biofilms, Infection, and Antimicrobial Therapy 2005, 241-256. Boca Raton, Taylor & Francis, London, New York, Singapore. J. Pace, M.E. Rupp, R.G. Finch (Eds.).
89. Li X., Yan Z., Xu J. Quantitative variation of biofilms among strains in natural populations of Candida albicans. Microbiology 2003, 149:353-362.
90. Liu L., Chu L., Liu Q., et al. A comparative study on biofilm formation of non-typeable Haemophilus influenzae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa under single culture or co-culture. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res. 2010, 4:180-184.
91. Lorenzo-Morales J., Coronado-Alvarez N., Martinez-Carretero E., et al. Detection of four adenovirus serotypes within water-isolated strains of Acanthamoeba in the Canary Islands, Spain. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 2007, 77:753-756.
92. Mackay W.G., Gribbon L.T., Barer M.R., Reid D.C. Biofilms in drinking water systems - a possible reservoir for Helicobacter pylori. Water Sci. Technol. 1998, 38:181-185.
93. Marciano-Cabral F., Jamerson M., Kaneshiro E.S. Free-living amoebae, Legionella and Mycobacterium in tap water supplied by a municipal drinking water utility in the USA. J. Water Health 2010, 08.1:71-82.
94. Marciano-Cabral F. Introductory remarks: bacterial endosymbionts or pathogens of free-living amebae. J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 2004, 51:497-501.
95. Mattana A., Serra C., Mariotti E., et al. Acanthamoeba castellanii promotion of in vitro survival and transmission of coxsackie b3 viruses. Eukaryot. Cell. 2006, 5:665-671.
96. Merrell D.S., Butler S.M., Quadri F., et al. Host-induced epidemic spread of cholera bacterium. Nature 2002, 417:642-645.
97. Michel R., Müller K.D., Hauröder B., Zöller L. Isolation of Saccamoeba limax simultaneously harboring both a Chlamydia-like endoparasite and a rod-shaped bacterium as endosymbionts. Endocyt. Cell Res. 2006, 17:171-179.
98. Molmeret M., Horn M., Wagner M., et al. Amoebae as training grounds for intracellular bacterial pathogens. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2005, 71(1):20-28.
99. Moreira L., Agostinho P., Morais P.V., da Cosa M.S. Survival of allochthonous bacteria in still mineral water bottled in polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and glass. J. Appl. Microbiol. 1994, 77:334-339.
100. Murga R., Forster T.S., Brown E., et al. The role of biofilms in the survival of Legionella pneumophila in a model potable water system. Microbiology 2001, 147:3121-3126.
101. Nadell C.D., Xavier J.B., Levin S.A., Foster K.R. The evolution of quorum sensing in bacterial biofilms. PLoS Biol. 2008, 6(1):e14.
102. Newsome A.L., Baker R.L., Miller R.D., Arnold R.R. Interactions between Naegleria fowleri and Legionella pneumophila. Infect. Immun. 1985, 50:449-452.
103. Oliver J.D., Dagher M., Linden K. Induction of Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhimurium into the viable but nonculturable state following chlorination of wastewater. J. Water Health 2005, 3(3):249-257.
104. Pagnier I., Raoult D., La Scola B. Isolation and identification of amoeba-resisting bacteria from water in human environment by using an Acanthamoeba polyphaga coculture procedure. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 10:1135-1144.
105. Pederson K. Biofilm development on stainless steel and pvc surfaces in drinking water. Water Res. 1990, 24(2):239-243.
106. Percival S.L., Thomas J.G. Transmission of Helicobacter pylori and the role of water and biofilms. J. Water Health 2009, 7:469-477.
107. Quignon F., Kiene L., Levi Y., et al. Virus behavior within a distribution system. Water Sci. Technol. 1997, 35:311-318.
108. Regan J.M., Harrington G.W., Noguera D.R. Ammonia- and nitrite-oxidizing bacterial communities in a pilot-scale chloraminated drinking water distribution system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2002, 68:73-81.
109. Reisner A., Grogfelt K.A., Klein B.M., et al. In vitro biofilms of commensal and pathogenic Escherichia coli strains: impact of environmental and genetic factors. J. Bacteriol. 2006, 188:3572-3581.
110. Rogers J., Keevil C.W. Immunogold and fluorescein immunolabelling of Legionella pneumophila within an aquatic biofilm visualized by using episcopic differential interference contrast microscopy. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1992, 58(7):2326-2330.
111. Sauer K., Camper A.K., Ehrlich G.D., Costerton J.W., Davies D.G. Pseudomonas aeruginosa displays multiple phenotypes during development as a biofilm. J. Bacteriol. 2002, 184(4):1140-1154.
112. Schild S., Tamayo R., Nelson E.J., et al. Genes induced late in infection increase fitness of Vibrio cholerae after release into the environment. Cell Host Microbe. 2007, 11:264-277.
113. Searcy K.E., Packman A.I., Atwill E.R., Harter T. Capture and retention of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72(9):6242-6247.
114. Sibille I., Sime-Ngando T., Mathieu L., Block J.C. Protozoan bacterivory and Escherichia coli survival in drinking water systems. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 64:197-202.
115. Sillankorva S., Neubauer P., Azeredo J. Phage control of dual species biofilms of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Staphylococcus lentus. Biofouling 2010, 26(5):567-575.
116. Skraber S., Schijven J., Gantzer C., de Roda Husman A.M. Pathogenic viruses in drinking-water biofilms: a public health risk?. Biofilms 2005, 2:105-117.
117. Stark R.M., Gerwig G.J., Pitman R.S., et al. Biofilm formation by Helicobacter pylori. Lett Appl. Microbiol. 1999, 28:121-126.
118. Steed K.A., Falkinham J.O. Effect of growth in biofilms on chlorine susceptibility of Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2006, 72:4007-4011.
119. Steinberg K.M., Levin B.R. Grazing protozoa and the evolution of the Escherichia coli O157:H7 Shiga toxinencoding prophage. Proc. Biol. Sci. 2007, 274:1921-1929.
120. Steinert M., Birkness K., White E., et al. Mycobacterium avium bacilli grow saprozoically in coculture with Acanthamoeba polyphaga and survive within cyst walls. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1998, 1998(64):2256-2261.
121. Stewart P.S., Roe F., Rayner J., et al. Effect of catalase and hydrogen peroxide penetration into Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2000, 66:836-838.
122. Hall-Stoodley L., Stoodley P. Biofilm formation and dispersal and the transmission of human pathogens. Trends Microbiol. 2005, 13(1):7-10.
123. Storey M.V., Långmark J., Ashbolt N.J., Stenström T.A. The fate of legionellae within distribution pipe biofilms: measurement of their persistence, inactivation and detachment. Water Sci. Technol. 2004, 49:269-275.
124. Szabo J.G., Rice E.W., Bishop P.L. Persistence and decontamination of Bacillus atrophaeus sbsp. globigii spores on corroded iron in a model drinking water system. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2007, 73:2451-2457.
125. Szewzyk U., Szewzyk R., Manz W., Schleifer K.H. Microbiological safety of drinking water. Ann. Rev. Microbiol. 2000, 54:81-127.
126. Tamayo R., Patimalla B., Camilli A. Growth in a biofilm induces a hyperinfectious phenotype in Vibrio cholera. Infect. Immun. 2010, 78(8):3560-3569.
127. Tatchou-Nyamsi-König J.A., Moreau A., Fédérighi M., Block J.C. Behaviour of Campylobacter jejuni in experimentally contaminated bottled natural mineral water. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2007, 103:280-288.
128. Thomas V., McDonnell G., Denyer S.P., Maillard J.Y. Free-living amoebae and their intracellular pathogenic microorganisms: risks for water quality. FEMS Microbiol. Rev. 2010, 34(3):231-259.
129. Thomas V., Bouchez T., Nicolas V., et al. Amoebae in domestic water systems: resistance to disinfection treatments and implication in Legionella persistence. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 2004, 97:950-963.
130. Trachoo N., Frank J.F., Stern N.J. Survival of Campylobacter jejuni in biofilms isolated from chicken houses. J. Food Prot. 2002, 65:1110-1116.
131. Trevors J.T. Viable but non-culturable (VBNC) bacteria: gene expression in planktonic and biofilm cells. J. Microbiol. Methods 2011, 86(2):266-273.
132. US EPA Health risks from microbial growth and biofilms in drinking water distribution systems. Distribution System White Paper 2002, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC: U.S, Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. Standards and Risk Management Division.
133. Van Loon F.P., Clemens J.D., Shahrier M., Sack D.A., Stephensen C.B., Khan M.R., Rabbani G.H., Rao M.R., Banik A.K. Low gastric acid as a risk factor for cholera transmission: application of a new non-invasive gastric acid field test. J. Clin. Epidemiol. 1990, 43(12):1361-1367.
134. Vital M., Füchslin H.P., Hammes F., Egli T. Growth of Vibrio cholerae O1 Ogawa Eltor in freshwater. Microbiology 2007, 153:1993-2001.
135. Vital M., Hammes F., Egli T. Escherichia coli O157 can grow in natural freshwater at low carbon concentrations. Environ. Microbiol. 2008, 10(9):2387-2396.
136. Wadowsky R.M., West A.J., Kuchta J.M., et al. Multiplication of Legionella spp. in tap water containing Hartmannella vermiformis. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1991, 57:1950-1955.
137. Wadowsky R.M., Yee R.B. Satellite growth of Legionella pneumophila with an environmental isolate of Flavobacterium breve. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 1983, 46:1447-1449.
138. Watnick P., Kolter R. Biofilm, city of microbes. J. Bacteriol. 2000, 182:2675-2679.
139. Watson C.L., Owen R.J., Said B., et al. Detection of Helicobacter pylori by PCR but not culture in water and biofilm samples from drinking water distribution systems in England. J. Appl. Microbiol. 2004, 97:690-698.
140. Wingender J. Hygienically relevant microorganisms in biofilms of man-made water systems. Biofilm Perspectives 2011, Springer International, Heidelberg, New York, Chapter 9. H.C. Flemming, J. Wingender, U. Szewzyk (Eds.).
141. Wingender J., Flemming H.C. Biofilms in drinking water and their role as reservoir for pathogens. Int. J. Hyg. Environ. Health 2011, 214(6):417-423.
142. Winiecka-Krusnell J., Wreiber K., Von Euler A., et al. Free-living amoebae promote growth and survival of Helicobacter pylori. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. 2002, 34:253-256.
143. Wolf P.W., Oliver J.D. Temperature effects on the viable but non-culturable state of Vibrio vulnificus. FEMS Microbiol. Letters 1992, 101(1):33-39.
144. Yildiz F.H., Schoolnik G.K. Vibrio cholerae O1 El Tor: identification of a gene cluster required for the rugose colony type, exopolysaccharide production, chlorine resistance, and biofilm formation. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 1999, 96:4028-4033.
145. Xiao C., Kuznetsov Y.G., Sun S., et al. Structural studies of the giant mimivirus. PLoS Biol. 2009, 7(4):e92.
146. Xu H.S., Robert N., Singleton F.L., Attwel R.W., Grimes D.J., Colwell R.R. Survival and viability of non-culturable Escherichia coli and Vibrio cholerae in the estuarine and marine environment. Microbial. Ecology 1982, 8:313-323.