Hemp for headache: An in-depth historical and scientific review of cannabis in migraine treatment

Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics

Volumn 1, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 21-92

  Russo, Ethan ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF MONTANA   (United States)

Author keywords

Analgesia; Anandamide; Cannabis; Dronabinol; Endocannabinoids; Ethnobotany; Headache; History of medicine; Indian hemp; Marijuana; Migraine; Pain; Psychopharmacology

Indexed keywords

EID: 84901141240     PISSN: 15299775     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1300/J175v01n02_04     Document Type: Article

References (305)

1. Abel, E. L., 1979. A comprehensive guide to the cannabis literature, Westport, CT:Greenwood Press.
2. Abrahamov, A., and Mechoulam, R., 1995. An efficient new cannabinoid antiemetic in pediatric oncology. Life Sci, 56(23–24):2097–2102.
3. Ainslie, W., 1826. Materia Indica; or, Some account of those articles which are employed by the Hindoos and other eastern nations, in their medicine, arts, and agriculture, London:Longman, Rees, Orme, and Brown.
4. Alakbarov, F. U., 2000. Medicinal properties of cannabis according to medieval manuscripts of Azerbaijan. J Cann Ther, 1(2):3–14.
5. Allbutt, T. C., 1874. On megrim, sick headache, and some allied disorders. British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, 53:306–320.
6. Allbutt, T. C., and Dixon, W., 1906. System of medicine, Vol. 2, London:Macmillan.
7. Allman, J. D., 1911. Cannabis indica. Med Times, 39:765–766.
8. Alpin, P., 1980. Plantes d’Egypte:1581–1584, Collection des voyageurs occidentaux en Egypte; v.22, Le Caire:Institut français d’archeologie orientale du Caire.
9. Ames, O., 1939. Economic annuals and human cultures, Cambridge, MA:Botanical Museum of Harvard University.
10. Andrews, G., and Vinkenoog, S., 1967. The book of grass; An anthology on Indian hemp, New York:Grove Press.
11. Ange de Saint-Joseph, Le Père. 1681. Pharmacopoea Persica et idiomate Persico in Latinum conversa, Paris:Lutetia Parisiorum.
12. Anonymous. 1879. A contribution to the therapeutics of migraine. Brit Med J, 2:783–784.
13. Anonymous. 1883. Cannabis indica. Brit Med J, 1:992
14. Anonymous. 1996. Access to therapeutic marijuana/cannabis. Am J Pub Health, 86:441–442.
15. Anstie, F. E., 1872. A clinical lecture on migraine. Part II.-Principles of treatment. Practitioner, 9:348–358.
16. Anstie, F. E., 1871. Neuralgia and the diseases that resemble it, London and New York:Macmillan.
17. Ashton, C. H., 1999. Adverse effects of cannabis and cannabinoids. Brit J Anaesth, 83(4):637–649.
18. Attlee, J., 1896. A case of poisoning by Cannabis indica. Brit Med J, 2 October 3:948
19. Aulde, J., 1890. Studies in therapeutics-Cannabis indica. Therap Gaz, 14:523–526.
20. Auster, F., and Schafer, J., 1955. Arzneipflanzen, Leipzig:Veb Georg Thieme.
21. Barinaga, M., 1992. Pot, heroin unlock new areas for neuroscience. Science, 258:1882–1884.
22. Barrett, M. L., Scutt, A. M., and Evans, F. J., 1986. Cannflavin A and B, prenylated flavones from Cannabis sativa L. Experientia, 42(4):452–453.
23. Bastedo, W. A., 1937. Materia medica, pharmacology and therapeutics, 4th ed., Philadelphia:Saunders.
24. Bates, D., Ashford, E., Dawson, R., Ensink, F. B., Gilhus, N. E., Olesen, J., Pilgrim, A. J., and Shevlin, P., 1994. Subcutaneous sumatriptan during the migraine aura. Neurol, 44(9):1587–1592.
25. Baudelaire, C., 1860. Les paradis artificiels:Opium et haschisch, Paris:Poulet-Mal-assis.
26. Baum, D., 1996. Smoke and mirrors:The war on drugs and the politics of failure, Boston:Little Brown.
27. Beckman, H., 1938. Treatment in general practice, Philadelphia:Saunders.
28. Behbehani, M. M., 1995. Functional characteristics of the midbrain periaqueductal gray. Prog Neurobiol, 46(6):575–605.
29. Benet, S., 1975. “Early diffusion and folk uses of hemp”. In Cannabis and culture, Edited by:Rubin, V., The Hague, Paris:Mouton.
30. Benetowa, S., 1936. Konopie W Wierzeniach I Zwyczajach Ludowych:Le chanvre dans les croyances et les coutumes populaires, Warsaw:Nakladem Towarzystwa Naukowego Warszawskiego.
31. Bergius, P. J., and Hesselberg, P., 1782. Materia medica e regno vegetabili, 2nd ed., Stockholmiae:P. Hesselberg.
32. Biruni, Muhammad Ibn, Ahmad, Said H.M., and Hamdard National Foundation-Say-danah. 1973. al-Biruni’s book on pharmacy and materia medica, Pakistan series of Central Asian studies no. 1–2, Karachi:Hamdard Academy.
33. 1A serotonin receptor potentiation by the biologically active lipid oleamide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 95(8):4102–4107.
34. Bonnie, R. J., and Whitebread, C. H., 1970. The forbidden fruit and the tree of knowledge:An inquiry into the legal history of American marijuana prohibition. Virginia Law Rev, 56:971–1203.
35. Boulos, L., 1983. Medicinal plants of North Africa, Medicinal plants of the world; no. 3, Algonac, MI:Reference Publications.
36. Bouquet, R. J., 1950. Cannabis. Bull Narc, 2:14–30.
37. Bragman, L. J., 1925. The weed of insanity. Med J and Record, 122 October 7:416–418.
38. British Medical Association. 1997. Therapeutic uses of cannabis, Amsterdam:Har-wood Academic Publishers.
39. Brookes, W. L., 1896. A case of recurrent migraine successfully treated with Cannabis indica. Indian Med Record, 11:388
40. Brunner, T. F., 1973. Marijuana in ancient Greece and Rome? The literary evidence. Bull Hist Med, 47(4):344–55.
41. Burstein, S., 1992. “Eicosanoids as mediators of cannabinoid action”. In Marijuana/cannabinoids:Neurobiology and neurophysiology of drug abuse, Edited by:Murphy, L., and Bartke, A., Boca Raton:CRC Press.
42. Burstein, S., Levin, E., and Varanelli, C., 1973. Prostaglandins and cannabis. II. Inhibition of biosynthesis by the naturally occurring cannabinoids. Biochem Pharmacol, 22(22):2905–2910.
43. Burstein, S., Varanelli, C., and Slade, L. T., 1975. Prostaglandins and cannabis. III. Inhibition of biosynthesis by essential oil components of marihuana. Biochem Pharmacol, 24(9):1053–1054.
44. Busse, H., 1897. Pflanzenreste in Vorgeschichtlichen Gefassen. Zeitschrift für Ethnol-ogie, 1:223–225.
45. Calignano, A., La Rana, G., Giuffrida, A., and Piomelli, D., 1998. Control of pain initiation by endogenous cannabinoids. Nature, 394(6690):277–281.
46. Camp, W. H., 1936. The antiquity of hemp as an economic plant. J New York Bot Gard, 37:110–114.
47. de Candolle, A., 1886. Origin of cultivated plants, 2nd ed, International scientific series; v.49 London:Paul Trench.
48. Carr, M. E., 1979. A linguistic study of the flora and fauna sections of the Erh-Ya Oriental Studies, Tucson:University of Arizona.
49. Carter, W. E., 1980. Cannabis in Costa Rica:A study of chronic marihuana use, Philadelphia:Institute for the Study of Human Issues.
50. Cary, E. H., 1937. Report of Committee on Legislative Activities. J Amer Med Assoc, 108:2214
51. 1F receptors) in human brain:Focus on brainstem and spinal cord. Neuro-pharmacol, 36(4–5):535–542.
52. Chardin, J., 1711. Voyages de Mr. le Chevalier Chardin, en Perse, et autres lieux de l’Orient, Amsterdam:Chez Jean Louis de Lorne.
53. Chomel, P. J.B., 1782. Abrégé de l’histoire des plantes usuelles, Paris:Librairies Associés.
54. Chopra, I. C., and Chopra, R. W., 1957. The use of cannabis drugs in India. Bull Narc, 9:4–29.
55. Chopra, R. N., 1982. Chopra’s indigenous drugs of India, 2nd ed., Calcutta:Academic Publishers.
56. Christison, A., 1851. On the natural history, action, and uses of Indian hemp. Monthly Journal of Medical Science of Edinburgh, Scotland, 13:26–45. 117–121.
57. Cichewicz, D. L., Martin, Z. L., Smith, F. L., and Welch, S. P., 1999. Enhancement of muopioid antinociception by oral delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol:Dose-response analysis and receptor identification. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 289(2):859–867.
58. Clarke, R. C., 1998. Hashish!, Los Angeles, CA:Red Eye Press.
59. Clendinning, J., 1843. Observation on the medicinal properties of Cannabis sativa of India. Medico-Chirurgical Transactions, 26:188–210.
60. Conrad, C., 1997. Hemp for health:The medicinal and nutritional uses of Cannabis sativa, Rochester, VT:Healing Arts Press.
61. Cowperthwaite, A. C., 1892. A text-book of materia medica and therapeutics:Characteristic, analytical, and comparative, 6th ed., Chicago:Gross & Delbridge.
62. Culpeper, Culpeper. 1994. Culpeper’s complete herbal:Consisting of a comprehensive description of nearly all herbs with their medicinal properties and directions for compounding the medicines extracted from them, London, New York:W. Foulsham.
63. da Orta, G., 1913. Colloquies on the simples and drugs of India, London:Henry Sotheran.
64. Dastur, J. F., 1962. Medicinal plants of India and Pakistan, Bombay:D.B. Taraporeva-la Sons.
65. Day, W. H., 1880. Headaches; Their nature, causes, and treatment, Philadelphia:Lindsay and Blakiston.
66. de Barge, A., 1860. Lettre de M. Alex. de Bunge à M. Decaisne. Botanique de France, 7:29–31.
67. Devane, W. A., Hanus, L., Breuer, A., Pertwee, R. G., Stevenson, L. A., Griffin, G., Gibson, D., Mandelbaum, A., Etinger, A., and Mechoulam, R., 1992. Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Science, 258(5090):1946–1949.
68. Dhavadee, Dhavadee. 1987. Medicinal plants, Bangkok, Thailand:The Committee.
69. Dinand, Aug Paul. 1921. Handbuch der heilpflanzenkunde, Esslingen, München:I.F. Schreiber.
70. Dioscorides, Dioscorides. 1968. The Greek herbal of Dioscorides, Edited by:Goodyer, J., and Gunther, R. W.T., London, New York:Hafner Publishing.
71. Dixon, W. E., 1899. The pharmacology of Cannabis indica. Brit Med J, 2:1354–1357.
72. Dixon, W. E., 1923. Smoking of Indian hemp and opium. Brit Med J, 2:1179–1180.
73. Dolan, J. P., 1971. A note on the use of Cannabis sativa in the 17th century (Engelbert Kaempfer). J S C Med Assoc, 67(10):424–427.
74. Donovan, M., 1845. On the physical and medicinal qualities of Indian hemp (Canna-bis indica); With observations on the best mode of administration, and cases illustrative of its powers. Dublin Journal of Medical Science, 26:368–402. 459–461.
75. Dwarakanath, C., 1965. Use of opium and cannabis in the traditional systems of medicine in India. Bull Narc, 17:15–19.
76. Dymock, W., 1884. The vegetable materia medica of Western India, Bombay:Education Society’s Press.
77. el-Mallakh, R. S., 1987. Marijuana and migraine. Headache, 27(8):442–443.
78. Emboden, W. A., 1981. The genus Cannabis and the correct use of taxonomic categories. J Psychoactive Drugs, 13(1):15–21.
79. Evans, A. T., Formukong, E. A., and Evans, F. J., 1987. Actions of cannabis constituents on enzymes of arachidonate metabolism:anti-inflammatory potential. Biochem Pharmacol, 36(12):2035–2037.
80. Evans, F. J., 1991. Cannabinoids:The separation of central from peripheral effects on a structural basis. Planta Med, 57(7):S60–S67.
81. 3 receptors in rat nodose ganglion. J Neurophysiol, 73:907–910.
82. Fankhauser, M., 1996. Haschish als medikament:Zur Bedeutung von Cannabis sativa in der westlichen Medizin, Pharmacy dissertation Bern:Universität Bern.
83. Fankhauser, M., 2001. “History of cannabis in Western medicine”. In Cannabis and cannabinoids, Edited by:Grotenhermen, F., and Russo, E., Binghamton, NY:The Haworth Press, Inc. (in press)
84. Fantus, B., 1933. Advances in therapeutic technic. J American Medical Society, 105:877–881.
85. Farlow, J. W., 1889. On the use of belladonna and Cannabis indica by the rectum in gynecological practice. Boston Medical and Surgical Journal, 120:507–509.
86. Ferrari, M. D., and Saxena, P. R., 1993. On serotonin and migraine:A clinical and pharmacological review. Cephalalgia, 13(3):151–65.
87. 1 receptors in migraine. Pathophysiology and treatment. Europ J Neurol, 2:5–21.
88. Ferri, S., Cavicchini, E., Romualdi, P., Speroni, E., and Murari, G., 1986. Possible mediation of catecholaminergic pathways in the antinociceptive effect of an extract of Cannabis sativa L. Psychopharmacol, 89(2):244–247.
89. Fettes, I., Gawel, M., Kuzniak, S., and Edmeads, J., 1985. Endorphin levels in headache syndromes. Headache, 25(1):37–39.
90. Fimiani, C., Liberty, T., Aquirre, A. J., Amin, I., Ali, N., and Stefano, G. B., 1999. Opiate, cannabinoid, and eicosanoid signaling converges on common intracellular pathways nitric oxide coupling. Prostagl Other Lipid Mediat, 57(1):23–34.
91. Fishbein, M., 1942. Migraine associated with menstruation. J Amer Med Assoc, 237:326
92. Fisher, M. A., and Glass, S., 1997. Butorphanol (Stadol):A study in problems of current drug information and control. Neurol, 48(5):1156–1160.
93. Flückinger, F. A., 1879. Pharmacographia:A history of the principal drugs of vegetable origin, met with in Great Britain and British India, London:MacMillan.
94. Foltin, R. W., Fischman, M. W., and Byrne, M. F., 1988. Effects of smoked marijuana on food intake and body weight of humans living in a residential laboratory. Appetite, 11(1):1–14.
95. Formukong, E. A., Evans, A. T., and Evans, F. J., 1988. Analgesic and antiinflammatory activity of constituents of Cannabis sativa L. Inflammation, 12(4):361–371.
96. Formukong, E. A., 1989. The inhibitory effects of cannabinoids, the active constituents of Cannabis sativa L. on human and rabbit platelet aggregation. J Pharm Pharmacol, 41(10):705–709.
97. Fox, R. H., 1897. Headaches:A study of some common forms with especial reference to arterial tension and to treatment. Lancet, 2:307–309.
98. Fride, E., and Mechoulam, R., 1993. Pharmacological activity of the cannabinoid receptor agonist, anandamide, a brain constituent. Eur J Pharmacol, 231(2):313–314.
99. Fride, E., 1996. Ontogenetic development of the response to anandamide and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol in mice. Brain Res Dev Brain Res, 95(1):131–134.
100. Gamage, J. R., and Zerkin, E. L., 1969. A comprehensive guide to the English-language literature on cannabis (marihuana), Beloit, WI:STASH Press.
101. Gautier, Gautier. 1846. Le club des hachichins. Revue des Deux Mondes, 13:520–535.
102. Gerritsen, M. E., Carley, W. W., Ranges, G. E., Shen, C. P., Phan, S. A., Ligon, G. F., and Perry, C. A., 1995. Flavonoids inhibit cytokine-induced endothelial cell adhesion protein gene expression. Am J Pathol, 147(2):278–292.
103. Gieringer, D., 1996. Why marijuana smoke harm reduction. Bulletin of the Multidis-ciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, 6:64–66.
104. Gieringer, D., 1996. Waterpipe study. Bulletin of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies, 6:59–63.
105. Gieringer, D., 2001. “Medical use of cannabis:Experience in California”. In Cannabis and cannabinoids:Pharmacology, toxicology and therapeutic potential, Edited by:Grotenhermen, F., and Russo, E. B., Binghamton, NY:The Haworth Press, Inc. (in press)
106. Glass, M., Dragunow, M., and Faull, R. L., 1997. Cannabinoid receptors in the human brain:A detailed anatomical and quantitative autoradiographic study in the fetal, neonatal and adult human brain. Neuroscience, 77(2):299–318.
107. 3H-dihydroergotamine-binding sites in the cat central nervous system:Relevance to migraine. Ann Neurol, 29(1):91–94.
108. Gowers, W. R., 1888. A manual of diseases of the nervous system, American ed., Philadelphia, PA:P. Blakiston Son & Co.
109. Greene, R., 1872. Cannabis indica in the treatment of migraine. Practitioner, 41:267–270.
110. Green, R., 1888. The treatment of migraine with Indian hemp. Practitioner, 41:35–38.
111. Grinspoon, L., and Bakalar, J. B., 1993. Marihuana, the forbidden medicine, New Haven:Yale University Press.
112. Grinspoon, L., and Bakalar, J. B., 1997. Marihuana, the forbidden medicine, Rev. and exp. ed., New Haven:Yale University Press.
113. Gu, W., and Clarke, R. C., 1998. A survey of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) use by the Hmong (Miao) of the China/Vietnam border region. J International Hemp Assoc, 5(1):4–9.
114. Gurley, R. J., Aranow, R., and Katz, M., 1998. Medicinal marijuana:A comprehensive review. J Psychoactive Drugs, 30(2):137–147.
115. Hall, W., Solowij, N., and Lemon, J., 1995. The health and psychological consequences of cannabis use, National Drug Strategy Monograph Series Vol. 25, Australia:National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre.
116. Hamann, W., and di Vadi, P. P., 1999. Analgesic effect of the cannabinoid analogue nabilone is not mediated by opioid receptors. Lancet, 353(9152):560
117. Hamarneh, S., 1957. Pharmacy in medieval Islam and the history of drug addiction. Med Hist, 16:226–237.
118. Hampson, A. J., Bornheim, L. M., Scanziani, M., Yost, C. S., Gray, A. T., Hansen, B. M., Leonoudakis, D. J., and Bickler, P. E., 1998. Dual effects of anandamide on NMDA receptor-mediated responses and neurotransmission. J Neurochem, 70(2):671–676.
119. Hampson, A. J., Grimaldi, M., Axelrod, J., and Wink, D., 1998. Cannabidiol and (-)Del-ta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol are neuroprotective antioxidants. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 95(14):8268–8273.
120. Hampson, A. J., Hill, W. A., Zan-Phillips, M., Makriyannis, A., Leung, E., Eglen, R. M., and Bornheim, L. M., 1995. Anandamide hydroxylation by brain lipoxygenase:metabolite structures and potencies at the cannabinoid receptor. Biochim Biophys Acta, 1259(2):173–179.
121. Hare, H. A., 1922. A text-book of practical therapeutics, with especial reference to the application of remedial measures to disease and their employment upon a rational basis, 18th ed., Philadelphia, New York:Lea & Febiger.
122. Hare, H. A., 1887. Clinical and physiological notes on the action of Cannabis indica. Therap Gaz, 2:225–228.
123. Hartwich. 1911. Die menschlichen Genussmittel, Leipzig:Tauchnitz.
124. Herkenham, M., Lynn, A. B., Little, M. D., Johnson, M. R., Melvin, L. S., de Costa, B. R., and Rice, K. C., 1990. Cannabinoid receptor localization in brain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 87(5):1932–1936.
125. Herkenham, M. A., 1993. “Localization of cannabinoid receptors in brain:relationship to motor and reward systems”. In Biological basis of substance abuse, Edited by:Korman, S. G., and Barchas, J. D., London:Oxford University.
126. Herodotus. 1998. The histories, Edited by:Waterfield, R., and Dewald, C., Oxford; New York:Oxford University Press.
127. Hollister, L. E., 1986. Health aspects of cannabis. Pharmacol Rev, 38(1):1–20.
128. Hollister, L. E., 2000. An approach to the medical marijuana controversy. Drug Alcohol Depend, 58(1–2):3–7.
129. Humphrey, P. P., Feniuk, W., and Perren, M. J., 1990. Anti-migraine drugs in development:Advances in serotonin receptor pharmacology. Headache, 30(1 Suppl):12–16. discussion 24–28
130. Indian Hemp Drugs Commission. 1894. Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–94, Simla:Govt. Central Printing Office.
131. Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Division of Health Sciences Policy. 1982. Marijuana and health:Report of a study, Washington, DC:National Academy Press.
132. Joy, J. E., Watson, S. J., and Benson, J. A., Jr. 1999. Marijuana and medicine:Assessing the science base, Washington, DC:Institute of Medicine.
133. Julien, M. S., 1849. Chirugie chinoise.- Substance anesthétique employée en Chine, dans le commencement du III-ième siecle de notre ère, pour paralyser momentanement la sensibilité. Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires de l’Académie des Sciences, 28:223–229.
134. Kabelik, J., Krejei, Z., and Santavy, F., 1960. Cannabis as a medicament. Bull Narc, 12:5–23.
135. Kaempfer, E., 1996. “Exotic pleasures”. In The Library of Renaissance humanism, Edited by:Carrubba, R. W., Carbondale:Southern Illinois University Press.
136. Kahl, O., 1994. Sabur ibn Sahl:Dispensatorium parvum (al-Aqrabadhin al-Saghir), Leiden:E.J. Brill.
137. Kaplan, J., 1969. Marijuana, Edited by:Young, W. M., and Kaplan, J., Silver Spring, MD:Thomas Jefferson Pub. Co. Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission, 1893–1894
138. Kapoor, L. D., 1990. CRC handbook of Ayurvedic medicinal plants, Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press.
139. Kimura, T., Ohta, T., Watanabe, K., Yoshimura, H., and Yamamoto, I., 1998. Ananda-mide, an endogenous cannabinoid receptor ligand, also interacts with 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT) receptor. Biol Pharm Bull, 21(3):224–226.
140. Klein, T. W., Friedman, H., and Specter, S., 1998. Marijuana, immunity and infection. J Neuroimmunol, 83(1–2):102–115.
141. Ko, M. C., and Woods, J. H., 1999. Local administration of delta9-tetrahydrocannab-inol attenuates capsaicin-induced thermal nociception in rhesus monkeys:A peripheral cannabinoid action. Psychopharmacology (Berlin), 143(3):322–326.
142. Kobert, E. R., and Universitas Dorpatensis. Pharmakologickeskii Institut. 1889. His-torische studien aus dem Pharmakologischen institute der Kaiserlichen universi-tat Dorpat, Dorpat:Halle.
143. Kumar, A. M., Haney, M., Becker, T., Thompson, M. L., Kream, R. M., and Miczek, K., 1990. Effect of early exposure to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the levels of opioid peptides, gonadotropin-releasing hormone and substance P in the adult male rat brain. Brain Res, 525(1):78–83.
144. Barre, La W., 1980. Culture in context:Selected writings of Weston La Barre, Durham, NC:Duke University Press.
145. Lailler, A., 1890. Therapeutique de chanvre indien. Annales Medic-Psychologiques:Journal de l’Alienation Mentale et de la Médecine Legale de Aliénés, 12:78–83.
146. Lawrence, H. Cripps. 1883. Cannabis indica. Brit Med J, 2:177
147. Lemery, N., 1733. Traité universel des drogues simples, Paris:Laurent d’Houry.
148. Leweke, F. M., Giuffrida, A., Wurster, U., Emrich, H. M., and Piomelli, D., 1999. Elevated endogenous cannabinoids in schizophrenia. Neuroreport, 10(8):1665–1669.
149. Lewis, B., Menage, V. L., Pellat, C. H., and Schacht, J., 1971. The encyclopedia of Islam, Leiden:E.J. Brill.
150. Lewis, H. E., 1900. Cannabis indica:A study of its physiologic action, toxic effects and therapeutic indications. Merck’s Archives of Materia Medica and Its Uses, 2:247–251.
151. Li, H.-L., 1974. An archaeological and historical account of cannabis in China. Econ Bot, 28:437–448.
152. Li, J., Daughters, R. S., Bullis, C., Bengiamin, R., Stucky, M. W., Brennan, J., and Simone, D. A., 1999. The cannabinoid receptor agonist WIN 55,212–2 mesylate blocks the development of hyperalgesia produced by capsaicin in rats. Pain, 81(1–2):25–33.
153. Lichtman, A. H., Cook, S. A., and Martin, B. R., 1996. Investigation of brain sites mediating cannabinoid-induced antinociception in rats:Evidence supporting per-iaqueductal gray involvement. J Pharmacol Exp Ther, 276(2):585–593.
154. Lilly. 1898. Lilly’s handbook of pharmacy and therapeutics, Indianapolis:Lilly and Company.
155. Linet, M. S., Stewart, W. F., Celentano, D. D., Ziegler, D., and Sprecher, M., 1989. An epidemiologic study of headache among adolescents and young adults. J Amer Med Assoc, 261(15):2211–2216.
156. Linné, Caroli A., 1772. Materia medica per regna tria naturae, Lipsiae et Erlangae:Wolfgang Waltherum.
157. Lipton, R. B., and Stewart, W. F., 1993. Migraine in the United States:A review of epidemiology and health care use. Neurol, 43(6 Suppl 3):S6–S10.
158. Little, J., 1888. Note on the relief of migrainous headache. Transactions of the Royal Academy of Medicine of Ireland, 6:55–58.
159. Liveing, Liveing. 1873. On megrim, sick-headache, and some allied disorders:A contribution to the pathology of nerve-storms, London:Churchill.
160. Lothrop, T., 1880. Migraine. Buffalo Medical and Surgical Journal, 20:193–202.
161. Camara, Lozano I., 1997. El uso terapeutico del Cannabis sativa L. en la medicina arabe. Asclepio, 49:199–208.
162. Camara, Lozano I., and Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Arabe. 1990. Tres tratados arabes sobre el Cannabis indica:Textos para la historia del hachis en las sociedades islamicas S. XIII-XVI, Madrid:Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Arabe.
163. Lyman, H. C., Jones, H. W., and Belfield, W. T., 1899. The new American family physician, Chicago:Geo. M. Hill.
164. Mackenzie, S., 1887. Remarks on the value of Indian hemp in the treatment of a certain type of headache. Brit Med J, 1:97–98.
165. Mackenzie, S., 1894. Therapeutique médicale:De la valeur therapeutique speciale du chanvre indien dans certains états morbides. Semaine Médicale, 14:399–400.
166. Mailleux, P., and Vanderhaeghen, J. J., 1992. Localization of cannabinoid receptor in the human developing and adult basal ganglia. Higher levels in the striatonigral neurons. Neurosci Lett, 148(1–2):173–176.
167. Mailleux, P., and Vanderhaeghen, J. J., 1994. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol regulates substance P and enkephalin mRNAs levels in the caudate-putamen. Eur J Pharmacol, 267(1):R1–R3.
168. Maimonides, M., 1979. Moses Maimonides’ glossary of drug names, Edited by:Rosner, F., Philadelphia, Ann Arbor, MI:American Philosophical Society.
169. Maneuf, Y. P., Nash, J. E., Crossman, A. R., and Brotchie, J. M., 1996. Activation of the cannabinoid receptor by delta 9-tetrahydrocannabinol reduces gamma-aminobu-tyric acid uptake in the globus pallidus. Eur J Pharmacol, 308(2):161–164.
170. Mannische, L., 1989. An ancient Egyptian herbal, Austin:University of Texas.
171. Manzanares, J., Corchero, J., Romero, J., Fernandez-Ruiz, J. J., Ramos, J. A., and Fuentes, J. A., 1998. Chronic administration of cannabinoids regulates proenkephalin mRNA levels in selected regions of the rat brain. Brain Res Mol Brain Res, 55(1):126–132.
172. Manzanares, J., Corchero, J., Romero, J., Fernandez-Ruiz, J. J., Ramos, J. A., and Fuentes, J. A., 1999. Pharmacological and biochemical interactions between opioids and cannabinoids. Trends Pharmacol Sci, 20(7):287–294.
173. Marcandier, M., 1758. Traité du chanvre, Paris:Chez Nyon.
174. Margolis, J. S., and Clorfene, R., 1969. A child’s garden of grass (The official handbook for marijuana users), North Hollywood, CA:Contact Books.
175. Marshall, C. R., 1905. A text-book of materia medica, London:Churchill.
176. Martin, B. R., 1986. Cellular effects of cannabinoids. Pharmacol Rev, 38:45–74.
177. Martin, M. A., 1975. “Ethnobotanical aspects of cannabis in Southeast Asia”. In Canna-bis and culture, Edited by:Rubin, V., The Hague, Paris:Mouton Publishers.
178. Martin, S., Padilla, E., Ocete, M. A., Galvez, J., Jimenez, J., and Zarzuelo, A., 1993. Anti-inflammatory activity of the essential oil of Bupleurum fruticescens. Planta Med, 59(6):533–536.
179. Martius, G., 1855. Pharmakologisch-medicinische Studien über den hanf, Erlangen:Junge & Sohne.
180. Marx, J., 1990. Marijuana receptor gene cloned. Science, 249(4969):624–6.
181. Mathew, N. T., 1997. Transformed migraine, analgesic rebound, and other chronic daily headaches. Neurol Clin, 15(1):167–186.
182. Mathre, M. L., 1997. Cannabis in medical practice:A legal, historical, and pharmacological overview of the therapeutic use of marijuana, Jefferson, NC:McFarland & Co.
183. Matsuda, L. A., Lolait, S. J., Brownstein, M. J., Young, A. C., and Bonner, T. I., 1990. Structure of a cannabinoid receptor and functional expression of the cloned cDNA. Nature, 346(6284):561–564.
184. Mattison, J. B., 1891. Cannabis indica as an anodyne and hypnotic. St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal, 61:265–271.
185. Mayor’s Committee on Marihuana of New York (City), George Barclay Wallace, and Elizabeth V. Cunningham. 1973. The marihuana problem in the city of New York, History of medicine series no. 38, Metuchen, NJ:Scarecrow Reprint Corp.
186. McPartland, J. M., and Pruitt, P. L., 1999. Side effects of pharmaceuticals not elicited by comparable herbal medicines:the case of tetrahydrocannabinol and marijuana. Altern Ther Health Med, 5(4):57–62.
187. McPartland, J., 2001. Cannabis and eicosanoids:A review of molecular pharmacology. J Cann Ther, 1(1):71–83.
188. McPartland, J. M., and Mediavilla, V., 2001. “Non-cannabinoids in cannabis”. In Can-nabis and cannabinoids, Edited by:Grotenhermen, F., and Russo, E. B., Binghamton, NY:The Haworth Press, Inc. (in press)
189. Mechoulam, R., and Ben-Shabat, S., 1999. From gan-zi-gun-nu to anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol:The ongoing story of cannabis. Nat Prod Rep, 16(2):131–143.
190. Mechoulam, R., 1986. Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents, Boca Raton, FL:CRC Press.
191. Mechoulam, R., Fride, E., and Di Marzo, V., 1998. Endocannabinoids. Europ J Pharmacol, 359:1–18.
192. Medical Economics Company. 2000. PDR for herbal medicines, 2nd ed, Montvale, NJ:Medical Economics Company.
193. Meng, I. D., Manning, B. H., Martin, W. J., and Fields, H. L., 1998. An analgesia circuit activated by cannabinoids. Nature, 395(6700):381–383.
194. Meyerhof, M., 1940. Sarh Asma al-Uqqar (L’explication de noms des drogues):Un glossaire de matière médicale composé par Maimonide, Cairo:Imprimerie de l’Institut Français d’Archeologie Orientale.
195. Michel, L., 1880. Propriétés médicinales de l’Indian hemp ou du Cannabis indica. Montpellier Medical, 45:103–116.
196. Mikuriya, T. H., 1969. Marijuana in medicine:Past, present and future. Calif Med, 110(1):34–40.
197. Mikuriya, T. H., 1995. Medicinal uses of cannabis at a Buyers’ Club http://www.dru-glibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/migrn2.htm
198. Mikuriya, T. H., 1997. Chronic migraine headache:Five cases successfully treated with marinol and/or illicit cannabis http://www.druglibrary.org/schaffer/hemp/migrn1.htm
199. Mikuriya, T. H., 1973. Marijuana:Medical papers, 1839–1872, Oakland, CA:Medi-Comp Press.
200. Misra, Misra. 1988. Bhavprakash nighantu [in Hindi], 8th ed., Varanasi, India:Chauk-hamba Press.
201. Mitchell, S. W., 1874. Headaches, from heat-stroke, from fevers, after meningitis, from over use of brain, from eye strain. Medical and Surgical Reporter, 31 July 25, August 1:67–70. 81–84.
202. Moreau, J.-J., 1845. Du hachisch et de l’aliénation mentale:Études psychologiques, Paris:Fortin Masson.
203. Müller-Vahl, K. R., Kolbe, H., Schneider, U., and Emrich, H. M., 1998. Cannabinoids:Possible role in patho-physiology and therapy of Gilles de la Tourette syndrome. Acta Psychiatr Scand, 98(6):502–506.
204. Müller-Vahl, K. R., Schneider, U., Kolbe, H., and Emrich, H. M., 1999. Treatment of Tourette’s syndrome with delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Am J Psychiatry, 156(3):495
205. 2)-induced NF-kappaB DNA binding activity and DNA damage in HepG2 cells. Carcinogenesis, 19(9):1583–1589.
206. Muthu, D. J.A.C., 1927. A short account of the antiquity of Hindu medicine, 2nd ed., Covent Garden:Baillière Tindall & Cox.
207. Nadkarni, K. M., 1976. Indian materia medica, 3rd ed., 2 vols. Vol. 1, Bombay:Popular Prakashan.
208. Nicolodi, M., 1998. Painful and non-painful effects of low doses of morphine in migraine sufferers partly depend on excitatory amino acids and gamma-aminobu-tyric acid. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res, 18(2):79–85.
209. Nicolodi, M., Del Bianco, P. L., and Sicuteri, F., 1997. Modulation of excitatory amino acids pathway:A possible therapeutic approach to chronic daily headache associated with analgesic drugs abuse. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res, 17(2–3):97–100.
210. Nicolodi, M., and Sicuteri, F., 1995. Exploration of NMDA receptors in migraine:Therapeutic and theoretic implications. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res, 15(5–6):181–189.
211. Nicolodi, M., and Sicuteri, F., 1998. Negative modultors [sic] of excitatory amino acids in episodic and chronic migraine:preventing and reverting chronic migraine. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res, 18(2):93–100.
212. Nicolodi, M., Volpe, A. R., and Sicuteri, F., 1998. Fibromyalgia and headache. Failure of serotonergic analgesia and N-methyl-D-aspartate-mediated neuronal plasticity:Their common clues. Cephalalgia, 18(Suppl 21):41–44.
213. Notcutt, W., Price, M., and Chapman, G., 1997. Clinical experience with nabilone for chronic pain. Pharmaceut Sci, 3:551–555.
214. Noyes, R., Jr. and Baram, D. A., 1974. Cannabis analgesia. Compr Psychiatry, 15(6):531–535.
215. Noyes, R., Jr., Brunk, S. F., Avery, D. A.H., and Canter, A. C., 1975. The analgesic properties of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol and codeine. Clin Pharmacol Ther, 18(1):84–89.
216. Nunn, J. F., 1996. Ancient Egyptian medicine, Norman:University of Oklahoma Press.
217. Oribasius. 1997. “Dieting for an emperor”. In Studies in Ancient Medicine, Edited by:Grant, M., and Scarborough, J., Vol. 15, Leiden:Brill.
218. O’Shaughnessy, W. B., 1838–1840. On the preparations of the Indian hemp, or gunjah (Cannabis indica); Their effects on the animal system in health, and their utility in the treatment of tetanus and other convulsive diseases. Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bengal,:71–102. 421–461.
219. Osler, W., and McCrae, T., 1915. The principles and practice of medicine, New York, London:Appleton and Company.
220. Owen, P. H., 1860. A description of Cannabis indica with an account of experiments in its use. New York Medical Press, 3:280–283.
221. Parkinson, J., 1640. Theatrum botanicum:The theater of plants; or, An herball of a large extent, London:Tho. Cotes.
222. Partridge, W. L., 1975. “Cannabis and cultural groups in a Colombian municipio”. In Cannabis and culture, Edited by:Rubin, V., The Hague:Mouton.
223. Peroutka, S. J., 1990a. Developments in 5-hydroxytryptamine receptor pharmacology in migraine. Neurol Clin, 8(4):829–839.
224. Peroutka, S. J., 1990b. The pharmacology of current anti-migraine drugs. Headache, 30(1 Suppl):5–11. discussion 24–28
225. Peroutka, S. J., 1997. Dopamine and migraine. Neurol, 49(3):650–656.
226. Perry, L. M., and Metzger, J., 1980. Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia:Attributed properties and uses, Cambridge:MIT Press.
227. Pertwee, R. G., 1997. Cannabis and cannabinoids:Pharmacology and rationale for clinical use. Pharmaceut Sci, 3:539–545.
228. Petro, D., 1997. “Spasticity and chronic pain”. In Cannabis in medical practice, Edited by:Mathre, M. L., Jefferson, NC:McFarland.
229. Rabelais, F., 1990. Gargantua and Pantagruel, 1st ed., Edited by:Raffel, B., New York:Norton.
230. Raskin, N. H., 1988. Headache, 2nd ed., New York:Churchill Livingstone.
231. Ratnam, E. V., 1916. Cannabis indica. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the British Medical Association, 13:30–34.
232. Ratnam, E. V., 1920. Cannabis indica. Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the British Medical Association, 17:36–42.
233. Remington, Joseph P., Wood, Horatio Charles, Sadtler, Samuel Philip, LaWall, Charles Herbert, Kraemer, Henry, and Anderson, John F., 1918. The dispensatory of the United States of America, 20th, ed., Philadelphia; London:J.B. Lippincott.
234. Reynolds, J. R., 1868. On some of the therapeutical uses of Indian hemp. Archives of Medicine, 2:154–160.
235. Reynolds, J. R., 1890. Therapeutical uses and toxic effects of Cannabis indica. Lancet, 1:637–638.
236. Rheede, H. V., 1678–1692. Hortus Indicus Malabaricus, Amsterdam:Joannis van Someren.
237. Richardson, J. D., Aanonsen, L., and Hargreaves, K. M., 1998a. Antihyperalgesic effects of spinal cannabinoids. Eur J Pharmacol, 345(2):145–153.
238. Richardson, J. D., Aanonsen, L., and Hargreaves, K. M., 1998b. Hypoactivity of the spinal cannabinoid system results in NMDA-dependent hyperalgesia. J Neurosci, 18(1):451–457.
239. 1 receptors. Pain, 75(1):111–119.
240. Riley, H. A., 1932. Migraine. Bulletin of the Neurological Institute of New York, 2 No-vember:429–544.
241. Ringer, S., 1886. A handbook of therapeutics, 11th ed., New York:W. Wood.
242. Robinson, V., 1946. Historical notes. Ciba Symposium, 8:401–403.
243. Roche, A., 1898. Symptoms of poisoning from a small dose of tincture of Cannabis indica. Lancet, 2 December 24:1701
244. Rosenthal, E., Gieringer, D., and Mikuriya, T., 1997. Marijuana medical handbook:A guide to therapeutic use, Oakland, CA:Quick American Archives.
245. Rubin, V., 1976. “Cross-cultural perspectives on therapeutic uses of cannabis”. In The therapeutic potential of marihuana, Edited by:Cohen, S., and Stillman, R. C., New York:Plenum Medical.
246. Rubin, V., and Comitas, L., 1972. Effects of chronic smoking of cannabis in Jamaica, Washington, DC:National Institute of Mental Health. Report. Research Institute for the Study of Man
247. Rubin, V., and Comitas, L., 1975. Ganja in Jamaica:A medical anthropological study of chronic marihuana use, New Babylon, studies in the social sciences; 26, The Hague:Mouton.
248. Rumpf, G. E., and Beekman, E. M., eds. 1981. The poison tree:Selected writings of Rumphius on the natural history of the Indies Library of the Indies, Amherst:University of Massachusetts Press.
249. Russo, E. B., 1998. Cannabis for migraine treatment:The once and future prescription? An historical and scientific review. Pain, 76(1–2):3–8.
250. Russo, E. B., 1992. Headache treatments by native peoples of the Ecuadorian Amazon:A preliminary cross-disciplinary assessment. J Ethnopharmacol, 36(3):193–206.
251. Russo, E. B., 2000. Handbook of psychotropic herbs:A scientific analysis of herbal remedies for psychiatric conditions, Binghamton, NY:Haworth Press.
252. Russo, E. B., 2001. “Migraine:Indications for cannabis and THC”. In Cannabis and cannabinoids, Edited by:Grotenhermen, F., and Russo, E. B., Binghampton, NY:The Haworth Press, Inc. (in press)
253. 2a receptors. Poster at 41st Annual Meeting of the American Society of Pharmacognosy. July22–26, Seattle, WA.
254. de Sacy, S., 1809. Des preparations enivrantes faites avec le chanvre. Bulletin des Sciences Medicales, 4:204
255. Sanyal, P. K., 1964. A story of medicine and pharmacy in India:Pharmacy 2000 years ago and after, Calcutta:Shri Amitava Sanyal.
256. Schaefer, C. F., Brackett, D. J., Gunn, C. G., and Dubowski, K. M., 1979. Decreased platelet aggregation following marihuana smoking in man. J Okla State Med Assoc, 72(12):435–436.
257. Schultes, R. E., Klein, W. M., Plowman, T., and Lockwood, T. E., 1974. Cannabis:An example of taxonomic neglect. Botanical Museum Leaflets of Harvard University, 23:337–367.
258. Schultes, R. E., and Hofmann, A., 1980. The botany and chemistry of hallucinogens, 2d ed., Springfield, IL:Thomas.
259. Seguin, E. C., 1877. Contribution to the therapeutics of migraine. Medical Record, 12:774–776.
260. Seguin, E. C., 1878. Contribution to the therapeutics of migraine, New York:Trow’s Printing and Bookbinding Company.
261. Sethi, Simeonis. 1868. Syntagma de alimentorum facultatibus, Edited by:Langkavel, B. E., Leipzig:B.G. Teubner.
262. Sharma, G. K., 1979. Significance of eco-chemical studies of cannabis. Science and Culture, 45(8):303–307.
263. Shaw, J., 1843. On the use of the Cannabis indica (or Indian hemp)-1st-in teta-nus-2nd-in hydrophobia-3rd-in cholera-with remarks on its effects. Madras Quarterly Medical Journal, 5:74–80.
264. Shen, M., Piser, T. M., Seybold, V. S., and Thayer, S. A., 1996. Cannabinoid receptor agonists inhibit glutamatergic synaptic transmission in rat hippocampal cultures. J Neurosci, 16(14):4322–4334.
265. Shen, M., and Thayer, S. A., 1999. Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol acts as a partial agonist to modulate glutamatergic synaptic transmission between rat hippocampal neurons in culture. Mol Pharmacol, 55(1):8–13.
266. Shoemaker, John V., 1899. The therapeutic value of Cannabis indica. Texas Medical News, 8(10):477–488.
267. Sinkler, W., 1886. “Headache”. In A system of practical medicine, Edited by:Pepper, W., Philadelphia:Lea Brothers.
268. Sinkler, W., 1890. Recent observations in the etiology and treatment of migraine. Medical News, July 19:53–59.
269. Smith, F. P., and Stuart, G. A., 1911. Chinese materia medica:Vegetable kingdom, Shanghai:American Presbyterian Mission Press.
270. Snyder, S. H., 1971. Uses of marijuana, New York:Oxford University Press.
271. Solis-Cohen, S., and Githens, T. S., 1928. Pharmacotherapeutics, materia medica and drug action, New York, London:D. Appleton.
272. Spadone, C., 1991. Neurophysiologie du cannabis [Neurophysiology of cannabis]. Encephale, 17(1):17–22.
273. Spender, J. K., 1884. The treatment of migraine, or “sick headache”. Brit Med J, 192:1144–1145.
274. Stefanis, C. N., Dornbush, Rhea L., and Fink, Max. 1977. Hashish:Studies of long-term use, New York:Raven Press.
275. Stefano, G. B., Salzet, B., Rialas, C. M., Pope, M., Kustka, A., Neenan, K., Pryor, S., and Salzet, M., 1997. Morphine- and anandamide-stimulated nitric oxide production inhibits presynaptic dopamine release. Brain Res, 763(1):63–68.
276. Stevens, A. A., 1926. The practice of medicine, 2d ed, Philadelphia and London:W. B. Saunders.
277. Stewart, W. F., Lipton, R. B., Celentano, D. D., and Reed, M. L., 1992. Prevalence of migraine headache in the United States. Relation to age, income, race, and other sociodemographic factors. J Amer Med Assoc, 267(1):64–69.
278. Storer, R. J., and Goadsby, P. J., 1999. Trigeminovascular nociceptive transmission involves N-methyl-D-aspartate and non-N-methyl-D-aspartate glutamate receptors. Neuroscience, 90(4):1371–1376.
279. Straub, W., 1931. “Intoxicating drugs”. In Lane Lectures on Pharmacology, Edited by:Straub, W., Stanford, CA:Stanford University Press.
280. Suckling, C. W., 1891. On the therapeutic value of Indian hemp. Brit Med J, 2:12
281. Sushruta. 1991. An English translation of the Sushruta samhita, 4th ed., Edited by:Bhishagratna, K. L., Varanasi:Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office.
282. Tambe, Y., Tsujiuchi, H., Honda, G., Ikeshiro, Y., and Tanaka, S., 1996. Gastric cyto-protection of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory sesquiterpene, beta-caryophyl-lene. Planta Med, 62(5):469–470.
283. Taylor, B., 1845. Chorea Medical Argus and Advocate of the General Practitioner of Medicine. Surgery and Midwifery, 1:2–4.
284. Terwur. 1997. UKCIA Presents-Terwur Testimony http:///www.foobar.co.uk/users/ukcia/medical/terwur.html
285. Thompson, R. C., 1924. The Assyrian herbal, London:Luzac and Co.
286. Thompson, R. C., 1949. A dictionary of Assyrian botany, London:British Academy.
287. Tirard, N., 1890. Toxic effects of Cannabis indica. Lancet, 1 March 20:723
288. Turner, Carlton E., and Elsohly, M. A., 1981. Biological activity of cannabichromene, its homologs and isomers. J Clin Pharmacol, 21:283S–291S.
289. United Nations Commission on Narcotic Drugs. 1965. The question of cannabis; Cannabis bibliography, Geneva:United Nations.
290. Volfe, Z., Dvilansky, A., and Nathan, I., 1985. Cannabinoids block release of serotonin from platelets induced by plasma from migraine patients. Int J Clin Pharmacol Res, 5(4):243–246.
291. Walker, B., 1968. The Hindu world; An encyclopedic survey of Hinduism, New York:Praeger.
292. Walker, J. M., Huang, S. M., Strangman, N. M., Tsou, K., and Sañudo-Peña, M. C., 1999. Pain modulation by the release of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA, 96(21):12198–12203.
293. Waller, C. W., Johnson, J. J., Buelke, J., and Turner, C. E., 1976. Marihuana, an annotated bibliography, New York:Macmillan Information.
294. Walton, R. P., 1938. Marihuana, America’s new drug problem. A sociologic question with its basic explanation dependent on biologic and medical principles, Philadelphia, London:J.B. Lippincott.
295. Waring, E. J., 1874. Practical Therapeutics, Philadelphia:Lindsay and Blakiston.
296. Watt, G., 1889. A dictionary of the economic products of India, Vol. 2, Calcutta:Superintendent of Government Printing.
297. Weiller, C., May, A., Limmroth, V., Juptner, M., Kaube, H., Schayck, R. V., Coenen, H. H., and Diener, H. C., 1995. Brain stem activation in spontaneous human migraine attacks. Nat Med, 1(7):658–660.
298. Wiegant, V. M., Sweep, C. G., and Nir, I., 1987. Effect of acute administration of delta-1-tetrahydrocannabinol on beta- endorphin levels in plasma and brain tissue of the rat. Experientia, 43(4):413–415.
299. Wirtshafter, D., 1997. “Nutritional value of hemp seed and hemp seed oil”. In Cannabis in medical practice, Edited by:Mathre, M. L., Jefferson, NC:McFarland and Company.
300. Wood, H. C., and Wood, H. C., 1900. Therapeutics:Its principles and practice, 11th ed., Philadelphia:J.B. Lippincott.
301. Zargari, A., 1990. Medicinal plants, 4th ed., 4 vols. Teheran:Teheran University Publications.
302. Darmesteter, J., ed. 1895. Zend-Avesta, Part I, The Vendidad, London:Oxford University.
303. Zias, J., Stark, H., Sellgman, J., Levy, R., Werker, E., Breuer, A., and Mechoulam, R., 1993. Early medical use of cannabis. Nature, 363(6426):215
304. Zimmer, L. E., and Morgan, J. P., 1997. Marijuana myths, marijuana facts:A review of the scientific evidence, New York:Lindesmith Center.
305. Zimmerman, B., Bayer, R., and Crumpacker, N., 1998. Is marijuana the right medicine for you?:A factual guide to medical uses of marijuana, New Canaan, CT:Keats Publishing.