American Indians, the Irish, and government schooling

American Indians, the Irish, and Government Schooling

Volumn , Issue , 2007, Pages 1-367

  Coleman, Michael C ^a  

^a NONE

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References (142)

1. For earlier studies see my American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993), Bibliography, B: Secondary Sources (211-22).
2. Published since then, and highly useful for the present work in that it is the autobiography of an ex-student and ex-teacher at Indian schools: Esther Burnett Horne and Sally McBeth, Essie's Story: The Life and Legacy of a Shoshone Teacher (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998).
3. Containing autobiographical passages by Indians from the eighteenth century to the present: Arnold Krupat, ed., Native American Autobiography: An Anthology (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1994).
4. Also, Herbert Lewis, ed., Oneida Lives: Long-Lost Voices of Wisconsin Oneidas (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2005), esp. chap. 7.
5. A number of autobiographies by white teachers at bia and missionary schools also proved useful,such as Gertrude Golden, Red Moon Called Me: Memoirs of a School Teacher in the Government Indian Service, ed. Cecil Dryden (San Antonio tx: Naylor, 1954);
6. Minnie Braithwaite Jenkins, Girl from Williamsburg (Richmond va: Dietz Press, 1951);
7. Janett Woodruff, as told to Cecil Dryden, Indian Oasis (Caldwell id: Caxton, 1939);
8. Richard Henry Pratt, Battlefield and Classroom: Four Decades with the American Indian, 1867-1904, ed. Robert M. Utley (1964; rpt., Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1987).
9. Other published reports provide further angles on the education of Indians: American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, First Ten Annual Reports of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, 1810-20 (Boston: abcfm, 1834);
10. Annual Report of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston: 1821-41);
11. Memorial Volume of the First Fifty Years of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston: abcfm, 1861).
12. Also consulted: Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the USA, Annual Report of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the USA (New York: Board of Foreign Missions, 1838-1893).
13. A crucial study, often cited in my text, was the famous and controversial Meriam Report: Institute for Government Research, The Problem of Indian Administration (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1928).
14. For the full texts of all Indian treaties see Charles J. Kappler, comp. and ed., Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties, vol. 2 (Washington dc: Government Printing Office, 1904). Available at http://digital.library.okstate.edu/kappler.
15. Also useful is the current bia website: www.doi.gov./bureau-indian-affairs.html.
16. Contemporary information is available at www.oiep.bia.edu/body.html (all most recently accessed June 26, 2006).
17. This whole collection, along with Indian sections of the bfm Annual Report, has been microfilmed: American Indian Correspondence: The Presbyterian Historical Society's Collection of Missionaries' Letters, 1833-1893 (Westport ct: Greenwood Press, 1979).
18. I have drawn on many of my own publications for the present work, especially American Indian Children at School, 1850-1930 (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1993).
19. I also used my more recent studies citing material published since 1993: "Treaties and American Indian Schools in the Era of Assimilation, 1794-1930," Encyclopedia of Native American Treaties, ed. Donald Fixico (New York: ABC-CLIO, forthcoming);
20. "The Symbiotic Embrace: American Indians, White Educators, and the School, 1820s-1920s," History of Education (Great Britain) 25 (March 1996): 1-18;
21. "American Indian School Pupils as Cultural Brokers: Cherokee Girls at Brainerd Mission, 1828-29,"
22. Between American Indian and White Worlds: The Cultural Broker, ed. Margaret Connell Szasz (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1994), 123-39;
23. "The Historical Credibility of American Indian Autobiographical Accounts of Schooling, 1850-1930," Irish Journal of American Studies 3 (1994): 127-50.
24. Some are by Native American scholars, such as the following: Donald J. Fixico, The American Indian Mind in a Linear World: American Indian Studies and Traditional Knowledge (New York: Routledge, 2003), especially chap. 5;
25. Vine Deloria Jr. and Daniel Wildcat, Power and Place: Indian Education in America (Golden co: American Indian Graduate Center and Fulcrum Resources, 2001);
26. Amanda J. Cobb, Listening to Our Grandmothers' Stories: The Bloomfield Academy for Chickasaw Females, 1852-1949 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2000);
27. Brenda J. Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1914 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998);
28. Henrietta Mann, Cheyenne-Arapaho Education, 1871-1982 (Niwot: University Press of Colorado, 1997);
29. K. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of the Chilocco Indian School (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994);
30. more recently by Lomawaima, "American Indian Education: By Indians versus For Indians," in A Companion to American Indian History, ed. Philip Deloria and Neal Salisbury (Malden ma: Blackwell, 2002), 422-40;
31. Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1993).
32. Non-Indian scholars besides myself have also devoted books to these and related issues: Lucy Maddox, Citizen Indians: Native American Intellectuals, Race, and Reform (Ithaca ny: Cornell University Press, 2005);
33. Bill Crawford, All American: The Rise and Fall of Jim Thorpe (Hoboken nj: Wiley, 2005);
34. Jon Reyhner and Jeanne Eder, American Indian Education: A History (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004);
35. Joel Pfister, Individuality Incorporated: Indians and the Multicultural Modern (Durham nc: Duke University Press, 2004);
36. Jeffrey Ostler, The Plains Sioux and U.S. Colonialism from Lewis and Clark to Wounded Knee (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004), esp. chaps. 7 and 8;
37. Ruth Spack, America's Second Tongue: American Indian Education and the Ownership of English, 1860-1900 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002);
38. Jean A. Keller, Empty Beds: Indian Student Health at Sherman Institute, 1902-22 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2002);
39. John Bloom, To Show What an Indian Can Do: Sports at Native American Boarding Schools, Sports and Culture Series, vol. 2 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000);
40. Scott Riney, The Rapid City Indian School, 1893-1933 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999);
41. Clyde Ellis, To Change Them Forever: Indian Education at the Rainy Mountain Boarding School, 1893-1920 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996);
42. David Wallace Adams, Education for Extinction: American Indians and the Boarding School Experience, 1875-1928 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995).
43. On a closely related subject is Marilyn Irvin Holt, Indian Orphanages (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2001).
44. A number of other studies are important: Frederick E. Hoxie, A Final Promise: The Campaign to Assimilate the Indians, 1880-1920 (1984; rpt., with new preface by author, Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001);
45. Margaret Connell Szasz, Education and the American Indian: The Road to Self-Determination since 1928, rev. ed. (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), especially chaps. 1-8;
46. Also by Szasz, Indian Education in the American Colonies, 1607-1783 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1988);
47. Margaret Jacobs, Gendered Encounters: Feminism and Pueblo Cultures, 1879-1934 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1999)
48. Francis Paul Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994);
49. Prucha's monumental The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians, vols. 1 and 2 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984);
50. Peter Nabokov, A Forest of Time: American Indian Ways of History (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
51. For a broader context on Indian schooling see Joel Spring, The American School, 1642-2000, 5th ed. (Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2001).
52. Useful collections of essays are the following: Philip J. Deloria and Neal Salisbury, eds., A Companion to American Indian History (Malden ma: Blackwell, 2002);
53. Frederick E. Hoxie, Peter C. Mancall, and James H. Merrell, American Nations: Encounters in Indian Country, 1850 to the Present (New York: Routledge, 2001);
54. Russell Thornton, ed. Studying Native America: Problems and Prospects (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1998).
55. Also providing context and information are the following: David Ricci, Good Citizenship in America (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004);
56. Theda Perdue, ed., Sifters: Native American Women's Lives (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001);
57. Joel W. Martin, The Land Looks After Us: A History of Native American Religion (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001);
58. Margot Liberty, ed., American Indian Intellectuals of the Nineteenth and the Early Twentieth Centuries (1978; rpt., Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2002);
59. Joseph Illick, American Childhoods (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000);
60. Clifford Putney, Muscular Christianity: Manhood and Sports in Protestant America, 1880-1920 (Cambridge ma: Harvard University Press, 2001);
61. Rogers M. Smith, Civic Ideas: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven ct: Yale University Press, 1997);
62. James H. Kettner, The Development of American Citizenship, 1608-1870 (Chapel Hill: Published for the Institute of Early American History and Culture, Williamsburg va, by the University of North Carolina Press, 1978).
63. These narratives are cited in notes to the present work. For a more compact citation of these narratives see notes to my "'Eyes as Big as Bowls with Fear and Wonder': Children's Responses to the Irish National Schools, 1850-1922," Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 98C.5 (1998): 177-202.
64. Autobiographies examined since then include the following: Loombe Atthill, Recollections of an Irish Doctor (London: Religious Tract Society, 1911);
65. William O'Malley, Glancing Back: 70 Years' Experiences and Reminiscences of Press Man, Sportsman and Member of Parliament (London: Wright and Brown, n.d. [1933?]);
66. Jeremiah Murphy, When Youth Was Mine: A Memoir of Kerry, 1902-1925 (Dublin: Mentor, 1998);
67. Eamon Kelly, The Apprentice (Dublin: Marion, 1996);
68. Mark F. Ryan, Fenian Memories (Dublin: Gill and Son, 1946);
69. Patrick J. Lindsay, Memories (Dublin: Blackwater, 1993);
70. Patrick Gallagher ("Paddy the Cope"), My Story (Dungloe: Templecrone Co-Operative Society, n.d.).
71. On events leading up to the establishment of the National Board and later developments, see the following: Fourteenth Report of the Commissioners for Inquiring into the State of All Schools, on Public or Charitable Foundations, in Ireland (1812);
72. Reports from Commissioners, First Report of the Commissioners of Irish Education Inquiry, H.C. 1825;
73. Second Report of the Commissioners of Irish Education Inquiry, H.C. 1826-27;
74. Royal Commission of Inquiry into Primary Education (Ireland), H.C. 1870 (Powis Commission).
75. For critical perspectives on the cnei see Claidheamh Soluis [Sword of Light], publication of the Gaelic League;
76. [Patrick H. Pearse], A Significant Irish Nationalist: The Educational Writings of P. H. Pearse, ed. Séamas Ó Buachalla (Dublin: Mercier Press, 1980).
77. A number of works are useful in part or in their entirety. In The Irish Hedge School and Its Books, 1695-1831 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2002), Antonia Fraser helps set the scene for the establishment of the cnei and continues some distance into the period of its existence.
78. Adrian Kelly, Compulsory Irish: Language and Education in Ireland 1870s-1970s (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 2002), in a sense goes the other way.
79. Also on language is Tony Crowley, War of Words: The Politics of Language in Ireland 1537-2000 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), esp. chaps. 5-6.
80. Janet Nolan shows in Servants of the Poor: Teachers and Mobility in Ireland and Irish America (Notre Dame in: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004) the importance of the national schools for the mobility of women, especially, in both Ireland and in the United States, to which huge numbers of them emigrated.
81. See also Thomas A. O'Donoghue, Bilingual Education in Ireland, 1904-1922: The Case of the Bilingual Programme of Instruction, Centre for Irish Studies Monograph Series no. 1 (Perth, Australia: Murdoch University, 2000);
82. Sean Farren, The Politics of Irish Education, 1920-1965 (Belfast: Queen's University, 1995);
83. Mary Cullen, ed., Girls Don't Do Honours: Irish Women in Education in the 19th and 20th Centuries (Dublin: Women's Education Bureau, 1987);
84. E. Brian Titley, Church, State, and the Control of Education in Ireland, 1900-1944 (Kingston on: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1983).
85. John Coolahan, Irish Education: Its History and Structure (Dublin: Institute of Public Education, 1980), chap. 1, on primary school education, is still an excellent short history of the cnei.
86. See also articles by Coolahan cited in the notes of the present study, including "Education as Cultural Imperialism: The Denial of the Irish Language to Irish Speakers, 1831-1922," Paedagogica Historica 37.1 (2001): 17-33.
87. Donald Akenson, The Irish Education Experience: The National System of Education in the Nineteenth Century (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1970), remains highly useful.
88. Little, to my knowledge, had been written on pupil responses to national schools until my own article "'Eyes Big as Bowls with Fear and Wonder': Children's Responses to the Irish National Schools, 1850-1922," Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 98C.5 (1998): 177-202.
89. However,for a broader study of responses to primary and secondary education see T. O. McCollam, "The Hard Old Bench: A Study of School Life as Portrayed in the Autobiographical and Fictional Works of a Number of Anglo-Irish Writers" (M.A. thesis, University of Ulster, 1985).
90. See also Janet Nolan, Servants of the Poor: Teachers and Mobility in Ireland and Irish America (Notre Dame in: University of Notre Dame Press, 2004);
91. A. Norman Jeffares and Anthony Kamm, eds., An Irish Childhood (London: Collins, 1987).
92. Other works giving broader contexts on the national schools include, for example, Kevin Kenny, ed., Ireland the British Empire (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004);
93. Alvin Jackson, Home Rule: An Irish History, 1800-2000 (London: Phoenix, 2003);
94. Jim Mac Laughlin, Reimagining the Nation State: The Contested Terrains of Nation-Building (London: Pluto, 2001);
95. Stephen Howe, Ireland and Empire: Colonial Legacies and Irish History (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000);
96. Bernadette Cunningham and Máire Kennedy, eds., The Experience of Reading: Irish Historical Perspectives (Dublin: Rare Books Group of the Library Association of Ireland/Economic and Social History Society of Ireland, 1999);
97. Patrick O'Mahony and Gerard Delanty, Rethinking Irish History: Nationalism, Identity and Ideology (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, 1998);
98. Mary Peckham Magray, The Transforming Power of the Nuns: Women, Religion, and Cultural Change in Ireland, 1750-1900 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998);
99. Thomas E. Jordan, Ireland's Children: Quality of Life, Stress, and Child Development in the Famine Era (Westport ct: Greenwood Press, 1998);
100. James S. Donnelly Jr., and Kerby A. Miller, eds., Irish Popular Culture, 1650-1850 (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1998);
101. Kenneth Milne, The Irish Charter Schools, 1730-1830 (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 1997);
102. Margaret Kelleher and James H. Murphy, eds., Gender Perspectives in 19th Century Ireland: Private and Public Spheres (Dublin: Irish Academic Press, 1997);
103. Maurice R. O'Connell, ed., O'Connell: Education, Church and State, Proceedings of the Second Annual Daniel O'Connell Workshop (Dublin: Institute of Public Administration, 1992);
104. David Hempton, Religion and Culture in Britain and Ireland: From the Glorious Revolution to the Decline of Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996);
105. Mary Daly and David Dickson, eds., The Origins of Popular Literacy in Ireland: Language Change and Educational Development, 1700-1920 (Dublin: Department of Modern History, Trinity College, Dublin/Department of Modern Irish History, University College, Dublin, 1990);
106. Barry M. Coldrey, Faith and Fatherland: The Christian Brothers and the Development of Irish Nationalism, 1838-1921 (London: Gill and Macmillan, 1988);
107. P. J. Dowling, The Hedge Schools of Ireland, rev. ed. (Cork: Mercier, 1968)
108. A number of scholars have explicitly compared American Indian and Irish experiences, thus comforting me in my venture: David Harding, "Objects of English Colonial Discourse: The Irish and Native Americans," Nordic Irish Studies 4 (2005): 37-60;
109. Katie Kane, "'Will Come Forth in Tongues of Fury': Relocating Irish Cultural Studies," Cultural Studies 15.1 (January 2001): 98-123;
110. Kane, "Nits Make Lice: Drogheda, Sand Creek, and the Poetics of Colonial Extermination," Cultural Critique 42 (Spring 1999): 81-103;
111. Nancy Scheper-Hughes, "The Best of Two Worlds, the Worst of Two Worlds: Reflections on Culture and Field Work among the Rural Irish and Pueblo Indians," Comparative Studies in Society and History 29 (1987): 56-75;
112. Nicholas P. Canny, "The Ideology of English Colonization: From Ireland to America," William and Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, no. 30 (October 1973): 575-98.
113. Partly stimulated by such work, I have written two Irish-Indian comparative studies: Michael C. Coleman, "Representations of American Indians and the Irish in Educational Reports, 1850s-1920s," Irish Historical Studies 33.129 (May 2002): 33-51;
114. Coleman, "The Responses of American Indian Children and Irish Children to the School, 1850s-1920s: A Comparative Study in Cross-Cultural Education," American Indian Quarterly 23.3/4 (Summer and Fall 1999): 83-112.
115. For a further comparative perspective see Michael C. Coleman, "Western Education, American Indian and African Children: A Comparative Study of Pupil Motivation through Published Reminiscences, 1860s-1960s," Canadian and International Education 18 (1989): 36-53.
116. Comparative studies relating Irish experiences with those of (unlikely) other peoples proved instructive: Joe Cleary, Literature, Partition, and the Nation State: Culture and Conflict in Ireland, Israel, and Palestine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002);
117. Cormac Ó Gráda, Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy, and Memory (Princeton nj: Princeton University Press, 1999);
118. Ian S. Lustick, Unsettled States, Disputed Lands: Britain and Ireland, France and Algeria, Israel and the West Bank-Gaza (Ithaca ny: Cornell University Press, 1993).
119. Recent comparative interest in the different yet connected histories of the peoples of the so-called British Isles is evidenced by such books as the following: Frank Welsh, The Four Nations: A History of the United Kingdom (London: HarperCollins, 2002);
120. Jeremy Black, A History of the British Isles (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997);
121. Adrian Hastings, The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion, and Nationalism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), chap. 3.
122. Over a century old but still highly useful is Graham Balfour, The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland (Oxford: Clarendon, 1903).
123. A major comparative study that proved greatly helpful in placing Irish and Indian experiences in broader contexts and in suggesting the value of comparison of similar educational processes in very different cultural and historical contexts is Peter N. Stearns, Schools and Students in Industrial Society: Japan and the West, 1870-1940 (Boston: Bedford, 1998).
124. Many of the essays in the following collection are also thought-provoking: James Mahoney and Dietrich Reuschmeyer, eds., Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
125. In addition, a number of recent articles also argued for the potential of comparative study, such as David Crook and Gary McCulloch, "Introduction: Comparative Approaches to the History of Education," History of Education 31.5 (2002): 397;
126. Rachel Adams, "The Worlding of American Studies," American Quarterly 53.4 (December 2001): 720-21;
127. Michael Adas, "From Settler Colony to Global Hegemon: Integrating the Exceptionalist Narrative of the American Experience into World History," American Historical Review 106.5 (December 2001);
128. Edmund Burke III, "The Terror and Religion: Brittany and Algeria," in Colonialism and the Modern World: Selected Studies, ed. Gregory Blue et al. (Armonk ny: Sharpe, 2002), 40-50;
129. Ann Laura Stoler, "Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North America and (Post) Colonial Studies," Journal of American History 88.3 (December 2001): 829-65.
130. A number of recent United States/Canadian comparative studies influenced my thinking: Jill St. Germain, Indian Treaty-Making Policy in the United States and Canada, 1867-1877 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2001);
131. C. L. Higham, Noble, Wretched, and Redeemable: Protestant Missionaries to the Indians in Canada and the United States, 1820-1900 (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press; Calgary ab: University of Calgary Press, 2000);
132. Roger L. Nichols, Indians in the United States and Canada: A Comparative Study (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1998).
133. Also,works on developments in Britain and the United States that influenced and were influenced by such complex and century-long developments: Steve Attidge, Nationalism, Imperialism and Identity in Late Victorian Culture: Civil and Military Worlds (Houndmills, Hampshire uk: Palgrave, 2003);
134. Colin Heywood, A History of Childhood: Children and Childhood in the West from Medieval to Modern Times (Cambridge uk: Polity, 2001);
135. David Vincent, The Rise of Mass Literacy: Reading and Writing in Modern Europe (Cambridge uk: Polity, 2000);
136. David Crystal, Language Death (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000);
137. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876-1917 (New York: Hill and Wang, 2000);
138. Stephen Heathorn, For Home, Country, and Race: Constructing Gender, Class, and Englishness in the Elementary School, 1880-1914 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000);
139. John Willinsky, Learning to Divide the World: Education at Empire's End (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998);
140. Kathryn Castle, Britannia's Children: Reading Colonialism through Children's Books and Magazines (Manchester uk: Manchester University Press, 1996);
141. J. A. Mangan, ed., The Imperial Curriculum: Racial Images and Education in the British Colonial Experience (London: Routledge, 1993);
142. Andy Green, Education and State Formation: The Rise of Education Systems in England, France and the USA (London: Macmillan, 1990).