Tense and tender ties: The politics of comparison in North American history and (Post) colonial studies

Journal of American History

Volumn 88, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 829-865

  Stoler, Ann Laura ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 33750857724     PISSN: 00218723     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/2700385     Document Type: Review

References (287)

1. On this issue, see Dipesh Chakrabarty, "Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks for 'Indian' Pasts?," Representations, 37 (Winter 1992), 1-26;
2. Anne McClintock, "Pitfalls of the Postcolonial," in Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Conquest (New York, 1995), 9-17;
3. and Arif Dirlik, "The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism," Critical Inquiry, 20 (Winter 1994), 328-56.
4. On the lack of historical specificity in postcolonial theory, see Dane Kennedy, "Imperial History and Post-Colonial Theory," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, 24 (May 1996), 345-63 .
5. See, for example, Ann Laura Stoler and Frederick Cooper, "Between Metropole and Colony: Rethinking a Research Agenda," in Tensions of Empire: Colonial Cultures in a Bourgeois World, ed. Frederick Cooper and Ann Laura Stoler (Berkeley, 1997), 1-56.
6. Motivation for taking on this task derives from my own pedagogic, political, and archival trajectories. On my research in the late 1970s in North Sumatra's multinational plantation belt (now the home of Reebok and Nike shoe factories), see Ann Laura Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870-1979 (New Haven, 1985).
7. For a reappraisal of that work, see Ann Laura Stoler, "Preface," in Ann Laura Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation in Sumatra's Plantation Belt, 1870-1979 (Ann Arbor, 1995).
8. Readers of Journal of American History are familiar with the numerous issues over the last decade that have explicitly urged and explored a broader transnational perspective for United States historians.
9. See, for example, David Thelen, ed., "Interpreting the Declaration of Independence by Translation: A Round Table," Journal of American History, 85 (March 1999), 1279-460;
10. David Thelen, ed., "Rethinking History and the Nation-State: Mexico and the United States as a Case Study, a Special Issue," Journal of American History, ibid., 86 (Sept. 1999), 439-697;
11. and David Thelen, ed., "The Nation and Beyond: Transnational Perspectives on United States History," Journal of American History, ibid. (Dec. 1999), 965-1307.
12. See also Ian Tyrrell, "AHR Forum: American Exceptionalism in an Age of International History," American Historical Review, 96 (Oct. 1991), 1031-55;
13. and Jane C. Desmond and Virginia R. Domínguez, "Resituating American Studies in a Critical Internationalism," American Quarterly, 48 (Sept. 1996), 475-91.
14. Albert L. Hurtado, Intimate Frontiers: Sex, Gender, and Culture in Old California (Albuquerque, 1993);
15. Sylvia Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties: Women in the Fur-Trade Society in Western Canada, 1670-1870 (Norman, 1983);
16. Michel Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. I: An Introduction, trans. Robert Hurley (New York, 1980), 103.
17. On "regimes of truth" (and "grids of intelligibility"), see Hubert L. Dreyfus and Paul Rabinow, Michel Foucault: Beyond Structuralism and Hermeneutics (Chicago, 1982), 120-21. Sexual and affective intimacies are not the only microsites of governance from which to explore the relationship between metropolitan and colonial histories. Studies in public health and histories of deportment, labor, communication, and transport provide other nodal points. I thank James Vernon for making this point. Still, I would argue that sexual and affective intimacies are a privileged site on which those other sites invariably turn back and converge.
18. For related arguments with different emphases, see Arjun Appadurai, Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization (Minneapolis, 1996), 48-65;
19. and Antoinette Burton, "Introduction: The Unfinished Business of Colonial Modernities," in Gender, Sexuality, and Colonial Modernities, ed. Antoinette Burton (New York, 1999), 1-16.
20. On quot;biopower" as a political technology focused on individual and aggregate bodies, see Foucault, History of Sexuality, I, trans. Hurley, 139-46.
21. For a helpful explication of his historical treatment of biopower, see Dreyfus and Rabinow, Michel Foucault, 133-42.
22. See, for example, Hanneke Ming, "Barracks-Concubinage in the Indies, 1887-1920," Indonesia, 35 (April 1983), 65-93;
23. Karen Tranberg Hansen, Distant Companions: Servants and Employers in Zambia, 1900-1985 (Ithaca, 1989);
24. Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990);
25. Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, ed., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998);
26. and Philippa Levine, "Orientalist Sociology and the Creation of Colonial Sexualities," Feminist Review, 65 (Summer 2000), 5-21.
27. On the prescriptions placed on Javanese nursemaids in Dutch colonial homes, and how those former nursemaids now remember them, see Ann Laura Stoler and Karen Strassler, "Castings for the Colonial: Memory Work in 'New-Order' Java," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 42 (Jan. 2000), 4-48.
28. See Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, 1995);
29. and Ann Laura Stoler, Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power: Race and the Intimate in Colonial Rule (Berkeley, forthcoming).
30. Richard White, The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650-1815 (Cambridge, Eng., 1991);
31. Gary Nash, "The Hidden History of Mestizo America," Journal of American History, 82 (Dec. 1995), 941-62.
32. William Appleman Williams, "The Frontier Thesis and American Foreign Policy," Pacific Historical Review, 24 (Nov. 1955), 379-95.
33. For the contrary argument that exceptionalism was "present at the very creation of America," not the imposition of later historians, see Jack P. Greene, The Intellectual Construction of America: Exceptionalism and Identity from 1492 to 1800 (Chapel Hill, 1993), 6.
34. As good an example as any of a colonial reader in which United States history does not figure is Cooper and Stoler, eds., Tensions of Empire.
35. Amy Kaplan, "'Left Alone with America': The Absence of Empire in the Study of American Culture," in Cultures of United States Imperialism, ed. Amy Kaplan and Donald E. Pease (Durham, 1993), 3-21.
36. As she put it, the absence of the United States from postcolonial studies "reproduces American exceptionalism from without" - treats it as a phenomenon separate from imperial expansion rather than an interrelated form of it. See Amy Kaplan, Cultures of United States Imperialism, ibid., 17.
37. For recent statements, see Nicholas Canny, "Writing Atlantic History; or, Reconfiguring the History of Colonial British America," Journal of American History, 86 (Dec. 1999), 1093-114;
38. Robert Blair St. George, "Introduction," in Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America, ed. Robert Blair St. George (Ithaca, 2000), 1-29;
39. and Michael Warner,"What's Colonial about Colonial America," Possible Pasts: Becoming Colonial in Early America, ibid., 49-70.
40. Vincente L. Rafael, White Love and Other Events in Filipino History (Durham, 2000);
41. Matthew Frye Jacobson, Barbarian Virtues: The United States Encounters Foreign Peoples at Home and Abroad, 1876-1917 (New York, 2000);
42. Paul Kramer, "The Pragmatic Empire: U.S. Anthropology and Colonial Politics in the Occupied Philippines, 1898-1924" (Ph.D. diss., Princeton University, 1998);
43. Gilbert M. Joseph, Catherine C. LeGrand, Ricardo D. Salvatore, eds., Close Encounters of Empire: Writing the Cultural History of U.S.-Latin American Regions (Durham, 1998);
44. Neil Foley, The White Scourge: Mexicans, Blacks, and Poor Whites in Texas Cotton Culture (Berkeley, 1997);
45. Linda Gordon, The Great Arizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass., 1999);
46. Alexander Stern, "Buildings, Boundaries, and Blood: Medicalization and Nation-Building on the U.S. Mexican Border, 1910-1930," Hispanic American Historical Review, 79 (Feb. 1999), 41-81;
47. Jeremy Adelman and Stephen Aron, "From Borderlands to Borders: Empires, Nation-States, and the Peoples in Between in North American History," American Historical Review, 86 (June 1999), 814-41, esp. 815.
48. Patricia Nelson Limerick calls for more comparative focus on the West as a way to "cast a spotlight on both the common characteristics of colonies and the distinctive styles of particular empires." See Patricia Nelson Limerick, Something in the Soil: Legacies and Reckonings in the New West (New York, 2000), esp. 101, 355-56.
49. Nash, "Hidden History of Mestizo America," 941-62.
50. See Catherine Linton and Michele Gillespie, eds., The Devil's Lane: Sex and Race in the Early South (New York, 1997);
51. Nancy Shoemaker, ed., Negotiators of Change: Historical Perspectives on Native American Women (New York, 1997);
52. Elizabeth Jameson and Susan Armitage, eds., Writing the Range: Race, Class, and Culture in the Women's West (Norman, 1997);
53. and Martha Hodes, ed., Sex, Love, Race: Crossing Boundaries in North American History (New York, 1999).
54. John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, Intimate Matters: A History of Sexuality in America (New York, 1988).
55. Even critical reviews confirm that their work centered the intimate in a new kind of history and political conversation. See Ann duCille, "'Othered' Matters: Reconceptualizing Dominance and Difference in the History of Sexuality in America," Journal of the History of Sexuality, 1 (Jan. 1990), 102-27;
56. and John D'Emilio and Estelle B. Freedman, "Commentary: A Response to Ann duCille's '"Othered" Matters,'" Journal of the History of Sexuality, ibid., 128-30.
57. For an effort to put the intimate back into the making of U.S. foreign policy, see Frank Costigliola, "'Unceasing Pressure for Penetration': Gender, Pathology, and Emotion in George Kennan's Formation of the Cold War," Journal of American History, 83 (March 1997), 1309-39;
58. and Frank Costigliola, "'Mixed Up' and 'Contact': Culture and Emotion among the Allies in the Second World War," International History Review, 20 (Dec. 1998), 791-805.
59. See Valerie J. Matsumoto and Blake Allmendinger, eds., Over the Edge: Remapping the American West (Berkeley, 1999).
60. On mixedness, métissage, and mestizaje in other contexts, see Jean Gelman Taylor, The Social World of Batavia: European and Eurasian in Dutch Asia (Madison, 1983);
61. Françoise Verges, Monsters and Revolutionaries: Colonial Family Romance and Métissage (Durham, 1999);
62. Ann Laura Stoler, "Sexual Affronts and Racial Frontiers: European Identities and the Cultural Politics of Exclusion in Colonial Southeast Asia," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 34 (Oct. 1992), 514-51;
63. Marisol de la Cadena, Indigenous Mestizos: The Politics of Race and Culture in Cuzco, Peru, 1919-1991 (Durham, 2000);
64. Ronald Stutzman, "El Mestizaje: An All-Inclusive Ideology of Exclusion," in Cultural Transformations and Ethnicity in Modern Ecuador, ed. Norman E. Whitten Jr. (Urbana, 1981), 45-94;
65. and J. Jorge Klor de Alva,"The Postcolonization of the (Latin) American Experience: A Reconsideration of 'Colonialism,' 'Postcolonialism,' and 'Mestizaje" in After Colonialism: Imperial Histories and Postcolonial Displacements, ed. Gyan Prakash (Princeton, 1997), 241-78.
66. See Ann Laura Stoler, "Carnal Knowledge and Imperial Power," in Gender at the Crossroads of Knowledge: Feminist Anthropology in a Postmodern Era, ed. Micaela di Leonardo (Berkeley, 1991), 55-101.
67. But contrast Antonia I. Castaneda's argument that sexual violence, rather than noncoerced unions, "functioned as an institutionalized mechanism for ensuring subordination and compliance" by Amerindian women in the seventeenth-century Spanish colonization of California. See Antonia I. Castaneda, "Sexual Violence in the Politics and Policies of Conquest," in Building with Our Hands: New Directions in Chicana Studies, ed. Adela de la Torre and Beatriz M. Pesquera (Berkeley, 1993), 33.
68. Carl N. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (Madison, 1971).
69. For the classic study of how, when, and where races did and did not mix in the United States, see Joel Williamson, New People: Miscegenation and Mulattoes in the United States (New York, 1980).
70. For Latin America, see Magnus Morner, Race Mixture in the History of Latin America (Boston, 1967).
71. For a more recent treatment (and an excellent bibliographic essay on mestizaje), see Stuart B. Schwartz and Frank Salomon, "New Peoples and New Kinds of People: Adaptation, Readjustment, and Ethnogenesis in South American Indigenous Societies (Colonial Era)," in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, vol. III: South America, Part II, ed. Frank Salomon and Stuart Schwartz (Cambridge, Eng., 1996), 443-501;
72. and Stuart Schwartz, "Spaniards, Pardos, and the Missing Mestizos: Identities and Racial Categories in the Early Hispanic Caribbean," New West Indian Guide, 71 (nos. 1 and 2, 1997), 5-20.
73. Taylor, Social World of Batavia, 66-68.
74. Craig Calhoun, Critical Social Theory: Culture, History, and the Challenge of Difference (Oxford, Eng., 1995), 59;
75. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge; and, The Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan (New York, 1972), 36-37.
76. Not a small part of that expert knowledge elaborated the dangers of "racial hybridization," most starkly in eugenicist research. See André-Pierre Taguieff, La force du préjugé: Essai sur le racisme et ses doubles (The force of prejudice: On racism and its doubles) (Paris, 1988);
77. and Verges, Monsters and Revolutionaries. Eugenics figured in debates about Argentinian national identity in the 1920s and 1930s to give "biological currency to the idea of Latinity and thereby new life to scientific racism,"
78. according to Nancy Stepan, "The Hour of Eugenics": Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America (Ithaca, 1991), 141.
79. See also Alexandra Stern, "Responsible Mothers and Normal Children: Eugenics, Nationalism, and Welfare in Post-revolutionary Mexico," Journal of Historical Sociology, 12 (Dec. 1999), 369-97.
80. See Julie Skurski, "The Ambiguities of Authenticity and National Ideology in Latin America," in Becoming National: A Reader, ed. Rony Grigor Suny and Geoffrey Eley (New York, 1996), 371-402.
81. Doris Sommer, Foundational Fictions: The National Romances of Latin America (Berkeley, 1991);
82. Vera M. Kutzinski, Sugar's Secrets: Race and the Erotics of Cuban Nationalism (Charlottesville, 1993), 13.
83. See, for example, Jose David Saldivar, ed., Border Matters: Remapping American Cultural Studies (Berkeley, 1997);
84. and Jose E. Limon, American Encounters: Greater Mexico, the United States, and the Erotics of Culture (Boston, 1998).
85. Verena Martinez-Alier, Marriage, Class, and Colour in Nineteenth-Century Cuba: A Study of Racial Attitudes and Sexual Values in a Slave Society (London, 1974);
86. Patricia Seed, To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico: Conflicts over Marriage Choice, 1574-1821 (Stanford, 1982);
87. Sharon Block, "Lines of Color, Sex, and Service: Comparative Sexual Coercion in Early America," in Sex, Love, Race, ed. Hodes, 141-63.
88. For a conceptual use of métissage in other contexts that does not pursue a historical comparison, see Jennifer Spear, "'They Need Wives': Métissage and the Regulation of Sexuality in French Louisiana, 1699-1730," in Sex, Love, Race, ed. Hodes, 35-59.
89. See Amirah Inglis, The White Women's Protection Ordinance: Sexual Anxiety and Politics in Papua (London, 1975);
90. and Claudia Knapman, White Women in Fiji, 1835-1930: The Ruin of Empire (Boston, 1986).
91. Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women's Campaign against Lynching (New York, 1979);
92. Patricia Grimshaw, Paths of Duty: American Missionary Wives in Nineteenth-Century Hawaii (Honolulu, 1989);
93. Mary P. Ryan, The Empire of the Mother: American Writing about Domesticity, 1830 to 1860 (New York, 1982);
94. Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds of Womanhood: "Woman's Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven, 1978).
95. For scholarship that gestures toward colonial and postcolonial histories that might be shared, see Leonore Manderson and Margaret Jolly, eds., Sites of Desire/Economies of Pleasure: Sexualities in Asia and the Pacific (Chicago, 1997).
96. Laura Wexler, Tender Violence: Domestic Visions in the Age of U.S. Imperialism (Chapel Hill, 2000);
97. Ian Tyrrell, Woman's World/Woman's Empire: The Woman's Christian Temperance Union in International Perspective, 1880-1930 (Chapel Hill, 1991);
98. Susan Thorne, "Missionary-Imperial Feminism," in Gendered Missions: Women and Men in Missionary Discourse and Practice, ed. Mary T. Huber and Nancy C. Lutkehaus (Ann Arbor, 1999), 39-66, esp. 60.
99. Jane Hunter argues that "imperial evangelism's" entreaties to Chinese women to obey their husbands "tended to enhance missionary authority instead." See Jane Hunter, The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (New Haven, 1984), 177.
100. Donna Guy, "'White Slavery,' Citizenship, and Nationality in Argentina," in Nationalisms and Sexualities, ed. Patricia Yaeger, Doris Sommer, and Andrew Parker (New York, 1992), 201-17;
101. Elizabeth van Heyningen, "The Social Evil in the Cape Colony, 1868-1902: Prostitution and the Contagious Diseases Acts," Journal of Southern African Studies, 10 (April 1984), 170-97.
102. See the definitions of colonialism in Catherine Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire: Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries: A Reader (Manchester, 2000), 1-36.
103. J. Jorge de Alva notes a "profound shift" in the concept of colonialism since the late 1970s, from a "structural" focus on economics and politics to one highlighting "cultural, discursive and power formation in everyday life." But the more productive shift has recognized how economic and political structures are transformed in the power relations of everyday life. See de Alva, "Postcolonization of the (Latin) American Experience," 263.
104. Stuart Hall, "Race, Articulation, and Societies Structured in Dominance," in Sociological Theories: Race and Colonialism, ed. UNESCO (Paris, 1980), 341.
105. Bernard Bailyn and Philip D. Morgan, eds., Strangers within the Realm: Cultural Margins of the First British Empire (Chapel Hill, 1991);
106. Jack P. Greene and J. R. Pole, eds., Colonial British America: Essays in the New History of the Early Modern Era (Baltimore, 1984);
107. Gordon S. Wood, "The Relevance and Irrelevance of American Colonial History," in Imagined Histories: American Historians Interpret the Past, ed. Anthony Molho and Gordon S. Wood (Princeton, 1998), 144-63;
108. and Martin Daunton and Rick Halpern, eds., Empire and Others: British Encounters with Indigenous Peoples, 1600-1850 (Philadelphia, 1999);
109. Warner, "What's Colonial about Colonial America?," 57;
110. McClintock, Imperial Leather.
111. Ramón A. Gutiérrez, When Jesus Came, the Corn Mothers Went Away: Marriage, Sexuality, and Power in New Mexico, 1500-1846 (Stanford, 1991);
112. Jennifer L. Morgan, "'Some Could Suckle over Their Shoulders': Male Travelers, Female Bodies, and the Gendering of Racial Ideology, 1500-1700," William and Mary Quarterly, 54 (Jan. 1997), 167-92.
113. See also Richard C. Trexler, Sex and Conquest: Gendered Violence, Political Order, and the European Conquest of the Americas (Ithaca, 1995).
114. See Taylor, Social World of Batavia;
115. and Kathleen M. Brown, Good Wives, Nasty Wenches, and Anxious Patriarchs: Gender, Race, and Power in Colonial Virginia (Chapel Hill, 1997).
116. Van Kirk, Many Tender Ties.
117. For the argument that legitimacy played a central role in disputes between Native Americans and colonists over land rights in early New England, see Ann Marie Plane, "Legitimacies, Indian Identities, and the Law: The Politics of Sex and the Creation of History in Colonial New England," in Empire and Others, ed. Daunton and Halpern, 217-37.
118. See also Ann Marie Plane, Colonial Intimacies: Indian Marriage in Early New England (Ithaca, 2000).
119. For the argument that "collisions" over notions of propriety and property between Indians and English predominated over mixing, see Jean M. O'Brien, Dispossession by Degrees: Indian Land and Identity in Natick, Massachusetts, 1650-1790 (New York, 1997).
120. See also David D. Smits, "'Abominable Mixture': Toward Repudiation of Anglo-Indian Intermarriage in Seventeenth-Century Virginia," Virginia Magazine of History, 95 (April 1987);
121. and Richard Godbeer, "Eroticizing the Middle Ground: Anglo-Indian Sexual Relations along the Eighteenth-Century Frontier," in Sex, Love, Race, ed. Hodes, 91-111.
122. For a later period, see Daniel R. Mandell, "Shifting Boundaries of Race and Ethnicity: Indian-Black Intermarriage in Southern New England, 1760-1880," Journal of American History, 85 (Sept. 1998), 466-501.
123. Eugene D. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll: The World the Slaves Made (New York, 1974).
124. For a reworking of the very unit of analysis for studying American cultural and racial histories, generating new kinds of non-nation-based histories, see Paul Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (Cambridge, Mass., 1993).
125. On the Indian plantation labor force of Fiji, see John D. Kelly, A Politics of Virtue: Hinduism, Sexuality, and Countercolonial Discourse in Fiji (Chicago, 1991).
126. On the recruitment of Javanese and Chinese workers to Sumatra, see Stoler, Capitalism and Confrontation.
127. On colonial Malaya, see John G. Butcher, The British in Malaya, 1880-1941: The Social History of a European Community in Colonial South-East Asia (Kuala Lumpur, 1976).
128. For the Caribbean, see Lara Putnam, "Public Women and One-Pant Men: Migration, Kinship, and the Politics of Gender in Caribbean Costa Rica, 1870-1960" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2000).
129. See Eileen J. Suárez Finlay, Imposing Decency: The Politics of Sexuality and Race in Puerto Rico, 1870-1920 (Durham, 1999).
130. Compare the sexual economy of domestic service and the racialized representation of servants in Lillian Smith, Killers of the Dream (1949; New York, 1961);
131. Ferdinand Oyono, Houseboy, trans. John Reed (1960; London, 1987);
132. and McClintock, Imperial Leather, 75-131.
133. Compare Willie Lee Rose, "The Domestic of Domestic Slavery," in Slavery and Freedom, ed. William W. Frechling (New York, 1982);
134. with Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 137-64.
135. African American women engaged in "a selective revelation of the personal that 'created the appearance of disclosure,'" according to Michelle Mitchell, "Silences Broken, Silences Kept: Gender and Sexuality in African-American History," Gender and History, 11 (Nov. 1999), 433-44.
136. Cf. Stoler and Strassler, "Casting for the Colonial," 14-17.
137. Compare the frequency with which accounts from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries of alleged attacks mention African, Asian, and Papuan male servants found in a bedroom, bathing area, or closet of a European home. See Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth-Century (Manchester, 1995), 52-54;
138. Hansen, Distant Companions, esp. 98-105;
139. Norman Etherington, "Natals Black Rape Scare of the 1870s," Journal of Southern African Studies, 15 (Oct. 1988), 37-53;
140. and Inglis, White Women's Protection Ordinance.
141. Albert Memmi, The Colonizer and Colonized, trans. Howard Greenfeld (Boston, 1991).
142. For reviews of this debate, see Robert J. Hind, "The Internal Colonial Concept," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 26 (July 1984), 543-68;
143. Fred Cervantes, "Chicanos as a Post Colonial Minority: Some Questions Concerning the Adequacy of the Paradigm of Internal Colonialism," in Perspectives in Chicana Studies, ed. Reynaldo Flores (Los Angeles, 1977), 123-35;
144. and Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in Britain's National Development (New Brunswick, 1999).
145. For a study of gender and internal colonialism without use of the latter term, see Sarah Deutsch, No Separate Refuge: Culture, Class, and Gender on an Anglo-Hispanic Frontier in the American Southwest, 1880-1940 (New York, 1987).
146. D.W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, vol. II: Continental America, 1800-1867 (New Haven, 1993), 170;
147. Francis Jennings, The Creation of America: Through Revolution to Empire (New York, 2000);
148. Eleanor Leacock, "Montagnais Women and the Jesuit Program for Colonization," in Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives, ed. Eleanor Leacock and Mona Etienne (New York, 1980), 25-42;
149. Diane Rothenberg, "The Mothers of the Nation: Seneca Resistance to Quaker Intervention," Women and Colonization: Anthropological Perspectives, ibid., 63-87;
150. Theda Perdue, Cherokee Women: Gender and Culture Change, 1700-1835 (Lincoln, 1998). For other uses of the internal colonialism model, see note 13 above.
151. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction.
152. Mary P. Ryan, Civic Wars: Democracy and Public Life in the American City during the Nineteenth Century (Berkeley, 1997), 296.
153. On racial membership and mixed-marriage legislation in late-nineteenth-century colonial Indonesia, see Stoler, Tensions of Empire, 198-237.
154. Gail Bederman, "'Civilization,' the Decline of Middle-Class Manliness, and Ida B. Wells's Antilynching Campaign (1892-94)," Radical History Review, 52 (Winter 1992), 5-30;
155. Kristin L. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood: How Gender Politics Provoked the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars (New Haven, 1998).
156. Inglis, White Women's Protection Ordinance.
157. This is not to exaggerate the breadth of the white women's anti-lynching movement or to ignore the fact that a much larger population of the white women in the U.S. virulently upheld racist practice. Sinha, Colonial Masculinity, 52-63; "Political Report No. 6," July 16, 1929, American Consulate, Medan, Sumatra (microfilm: roll 51, M 682), Records Relating to the Internal Affairs of the Netherlands, 1919-1929, Records of the Department of State, RG 59 (National Archives, Washington, D.C.). I thank Frances Gouda for calling my attention to this document.
158. On the conflicting cultural narratives from the 1920s about whether the United States was "imperialistic," see Emily S. Rosenberg, Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics and Culture of Dollar Diplomacy, 1900-1930 (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), esp. 131-37.
159. Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Empire, 1875-1914 (New York, 1987).
160. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1975).
161. On liberalism and its exclusions, see Uday Mehta, "Liberal Strategies of Exclusions," in Tensions of Empire, ed. Cooper and Stoler, 59-86.
162. For a fuller account, see Uday Singh Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (Chicago, 1999).
163. On the exclusionary effects of "interior frontiers," see Etienne Balibar, Masses, Classes, Ideas: Studies on Politics and Philosophy before and after Marx, trans. James Swenson (New York, 1994), 61-87, esp. 64.
164. Gary Wilder, "The Politics of Failure: Historicising Popular Front Colonial Policy in French West Africa," in French Colonial Empire and the Popular Front: Hope and Disillusion, ed. Tony Chafer and Amanda Sackur (New York, 1999), 33-55.
165. On the legal system as a productive site of racial ideologies, see Peggy Pascoe, "Miscegenation Law, Court Cases, and Ideologies of 'Race,'" in Sex, Love, Race, ed. Hodes, 464-90.
166. Ronald T. Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York, 1979);
167. Philip McMichael, "Incorporating Comparison within a World Historical Perspective: An Alternative Comparative Method," American Sociological Review, 55 (June 1990), 385-97;
168. Margaret R. Somers, "'We're No Angels': Realism, Rational Choice, and Relationality in Social Science," American Journal of Sociology, 104 (Nov. 1998), 722-84, esp. 758;
169. Raymond Grew, "The Comparative Weakness of American History," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 16 (Summer 1985), 87-101, esp. 93;
170. Robert Gregg, Inside Out, Outside In: Essays in Comparative History (New York, 2000), 6.
171. See Frederick Cooper, "Review Essay: Race, Ideology, and the Perils of Comparative History," American Historical Review, 101 (Oct. 1996), 1122-38;
172. and Frederick Cooper, "Le concept de mondialisation sert-il a quelque chose? Un point de vue d'historien" (Is the concept of globalization good for anything? A historian's point of view), Critique Internationale, 10 (Jan. 2001), 101-24.
173. For a related point, see Ian Tyrrell, "American Historians in the Context of Empire," Journal of American History, 86 (Dec. 1999), 1015-44.
174. See, for example, Mary Louise Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London, 1992).
175. On science and cross-imperial circuits of knowledge production, see Richard H. Grove, Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600-1800 (New York, 1995).
176. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, 1997).
177. For example, Johannes van den Bosch's hand appears in the administration of poverty both in the Netherlands and in colonial Indonesia: see Albert Schrauwer, "The 'Benevolent' Colonies of Johannes van den Bosch," Comparative Studies in Society and History (forthcoming).
178. Frantz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Charles Lam Markmann (1952; London, 1986);
179. George Balandier, "'La Situation Coloniale': Approche théorique" (The colonial situation: Theoretical approaches), Cahiers Internationaux de Sociologie, 11 (1951), 44-79;
180. Bernard S. Cohn, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Delhi, 1987);
181. Gwendolyn Wright, "Tradition in the Service of Modernity: Architecture and Urbanism in French Colonial Policy, 1900-1930," in Tensions of Empire, ed. Cooper and Stoler, 322-45;
182. van Heyningen, "Social Evil in the Cape Colony," 170-97;
183. Pratt, Imperial Eyes, 36;
184. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 95-135;
185. Edward W. Said, Culture and Imperialism (New York, 1993), 32.
186. On the political origins of modern English studies in the colonial education system designed for natives in nineteenth-century India, see Gauri Viswanathan, Masks of Conquest: Literary Study and British Rule in India (New York, 1989).
187. For the argument that colonialism is the "underside of modernity" in Latin America, see Enrique Dussel, The Underside of Modernity: Apel, Ricoeur, Rorty, Taylor, and the Philosophy of Liberation, ed. and trans. Eduardo Mendieta (Atlantic Highlands, N.J., 1996).
188. Kaplan, "'Left Alone with America,'" 17;
189. Hazel M. McFerson, The Racial Dimension of American Overseas Colonial Policy (Westport, 1997).
190. For the argument that policy toward Native Americans "served as a precedent for imperialist domination over the Philippines," see Walter William, "United States Indian Policy and the Debate over Philippine Annexation: Implications for the Origins of American Imperialism," Journal of American History, 66 (March 1980), 810-31, esp. 810.
191. Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916 (Chicago, 1984).
192. Peter H. Wood, Black Majority: Negroes in Colonial South Carolina from 1670 through the Stono Rebellion (New York, 1974).
193. Ayers identifies a striking pattern in U.S. historiography on race: the racial thinking of an early-seventeenth-century moment is seen as borrowed and imported; the racial perceptions and practices of an eighteenthand early-nineteenth-century period are seen as autonomously "American," internally induced and home-grown; America's domestic racial system in the third, early-twentieth-century "age of imperialism" is seen as exported overseas. See Edward L. Ayers, "What We Talk about When We Talk about the South," in All over the Map: Rethinking American Regions, ed. Edward L. Ayers et al. (Baltimore, 1997), 62-82.
194. Edward L. Ayers, All over the Map: Rethinking American Regions, Ibid., 76.
195. Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill, 1968);
196. Alexis de Tocqueville, Writings on Empire and Slavery, ed. and trans. Jennifer Pitts (Baltimore, 2001).
197. Dr. D. W. Horst, "Opvoeding en onderwijs van kinderen van Europeanen en Indo-Europeanen in Indies" (Raising and educating children of Europeans and Indo-Europeans in the Indies), Indische Gids, II (1900), 989.
198. See Nancy Hunt, "'Le Bébé en Brousse: European Women, African Birth-Spacing, and Colonial Intervention in Breastfeeding in the Belgian Congo," 1988, in Tensions of Empire, ed. Cooper and Stoler, 287-321;
199. Anna Davin, "Imperialism and Motherhood," 1978, Tensions of Empire, ibid., 87-151;
200. and Jean Comaroff and John ComarofF, Ethnography and the Historical Imagination (Boulder, 1992), 265-96.
201. Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks (London, 1971), 259.
202. These points are developed more fully in Ann Laura Stoler, "A Sentimental Education: Native Servants and the Cultivation of European Children in the Netherlands Indies," in Fantasizing the Feminine in Indonesia, ed. Laurie J. Sears (Durham, 1997), 71-91;
203. Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire, 151-64;
204. and Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Colonial Cultures and Their Affective States (Princeton, forthcoming).
205. Philip Corrigan, Social Forms/Human Capacities: Essays in Authority and Difference (London, 1990), 110.
206. Nancy F. Cott, "Notes toward an Interpretation of Antebellum Childrearing," Psychohistory Review, 7 (Spring 1978), 4-20;
207. Stoler, "Sentimental Education," 71-91.
208. J. J. Pigeaud, Iets over kinderopvoeding: Raadgevingen voor moeders in Indie (Something on raising children: Advice for mothers in the Indies) (Semarang, 1898);
209. Anthony Synnott, "Little Angels, Little Devils: A Sociology of Children," Review of Canadian Sociology and Anthropology, 20 (Jan. 1983), 88.
210. For Lewis Houghs 1849 statement, see Robert Sunley, "Early Nineteenth-Century American Literature on Childrearing," in Childhood in Contemporary Cultures, ed. Margaret Mead and Martha Wolfenstein (Chicago, 1955), 158.
211. Bernard Wishy also notes the belief that masturbation was due to "the low and depraved character of nurses and 'licentious domestic[s].'" See Bernard Wishy, The Child and the Republic: The Dawn of American Child Nurture (Philadelphia, 1967), 40.
212. Charles Loring Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York and Twenty Years' Work Among Them (1880; Montclair, 1967), 36, 43;
213. Bruce Bellingham, "Waifs and Strays: Child Abandonment, Foster Care, and Families in Mid-Nineteenth Century New York," in The Uses of Charity: The Poor on Relief in the Nineteenth Century Metropolis, ed. Peter Mandler (Philadelphia, 1990), 127-28.
214. Kirsten McKenzie, The Making of an English Slave-Owner: Samuel Eusebius Hudson at the Cape of Good Hope, 1796-1807 (Cape Town, 1993), 76.
215. Michael Steven Shapiro, Child's Garden: The Kindergarten Movement from Froebel to Dewey (University Park, 1983);
216. Ann Taylor Allen, "Gardens of Children, Gardens of God: Kindergarten and Daycare Centers in Nineteenth-Century Germany," Journal of Social History, 19 (Spring 1986), 437.
217. Armand Seville, "Les Métis Parias de l'Indo-Chine: Appel au Peuple Français" (The pariah métis of Indo-china: An appeal to the French people), Annales Diplomatiques et Consulaires, March 5, 1905, pp. 228-31, 244-50, 261-63.
218. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York, 1977), 293, 296.
219. On the Europe-wide development of the Mettray model, see Ceri Corssley, "Using and Transforming the French Countryside: The 'Colonies Agricoles' (1820-1850)," French Studies, 45 (Jan. 1991), 36-54.
220. On Mettray visions and disciplines, see Jeroen J. H. Dekker, Straffen, Redden en Opvoeden: Het onstaan en de ontwikkeling van de residentiele heropvoeding in West-Europa, 1814-1914, met bijzondere aandacht voor "Nederlandsche Mettray" (To punish, save, and raise: The genesis and development of residential re-education in Western Europe, with special attention to "Dutch Mettray") (Assen, 1985).
221. On disagreements over this model in the Indies, see Ann Laura Stoler, "Developing Historical Negatives: Race and the Modernist Visions of a Colonial State," in From the Margins: New Directions in Historical Anthropology, ed. Brian Axel (Durham, forthcoming).
222. Dekker, Straffen, Redden en Opvoeden, 55, 76.
223. Abram de Swaan, In Care of the State: Health Care, Education, and Welfare in Europe and the USA during the Modern Era (London, 1988), 57.
224. Letter, KV March 28, 1874, no. 47, inv. no. 2668 (General State Archives, The Hague, Netherlands).
225. Indies Department of Education to Governor-General, KV March 13, 1869, ibid.
226. Letter, KV March 28, 1874, ibid.
227. John H. Oberly, "Indian Commissioners' Reports," in The American Indian and the United States: A Documentary History, ed. Wilcomb E. Washburn (New York, 1973), 422.
228. thank Janet Finn for pointing me to this document. Janet Finn, "Boarding Schools and the American Indian Education Experience: Lessons of Culture, Power, and History," Oct. 2000 (in Ann Laura Stoler's possession).
229. thank her for sharing this manuscript in progress with me. On the coercive measures used to recruit Indian children for the boarding schools, see Brenda J. Child, Boarding School Seasons: American Indian Families, 1900-1940 (Lincoln, 1998), 13-15.
230. Richard Tennert, "Educating Indian Girls on Nonreservation Boarding Schools, 1878-1920," Western Historical Quarterly, 13 (July 1982), 276;
231. Finn, "Boarding Schools and the American Indian Education Experience," 6.
232. Tsianina Lomawaima, They Called It Prairie Light: The Story of Chilacco Indian School (Lincoln, 1994).
233. But Devon A. Mihesuah describes a differentiated "class system" in the school that distinguished between girls from "indigent," "traditionalist" families and those who were from "progressive," "mixed-blood" backgrounds. See Devon A. Mihesuah, Cultivating the Rosebuds: The Education of Women at the Cherokee Female Seminary, 1851-1909 (Urbana, 1993).
234. Such prescriptions for success were not embraced only by federal bureaus and colonial policy makers but also by some reformers within subordinated groups. See Lee Polansky, "I Certainly Hope You Will Be Able to Train Her: Reformers and the Georgia Training School for Girls," in Before the New Deal: Social Welfare in the South, 1830-1930, ed. Elna C. Green (Athens, Ga., 1999), 149;
235. Booker T. Washington, Tuskegee & Its People: Their Ideals and Achievements (New York, 1905), 21;
236. and James Douglas Anderson, "Education for Servitude: The Social Purposes of School in the Black South, 1870-1930" (Ph.D. diss., University of Illinois, 1973).
237. George M. Fredrickson, White Supremacy: A Comparative Study in American and South African History (New York, 1981);
238. and Howard Lamarand Leonard Thompson, eds., The Frontier in History: North America and Southern Africa Compared (New Haven, 1981).
239. Even a study of segregation in South Africa and the American South that opens with the observations of Maurice Evans, a South African who wrote about American race relations, sets aside the fact that Evans, like many of the social scientists depicted there, traveled back and forth between the two locales. See John W. Cell, The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (New York, 1982).
240. See also Gregg, Inside Out, Outside In, 1-26.
241. If many early studies approached these cases as two-column entries, others were already challenging that frame: Stanley B. Greenberg treated racial formations in the two societies as the product of expanding capitalist process, producing similar practices and priorities. See Stanley B. Greenberg, Race and State in Capitalist Development: Comparative Perspectives (New Haven, 1980).
242. On the circuits of knowledge production in South Africa and the United States, see Greg Cuthbertson, "Racial Attraction: Tracing the Historiographical Alliances between South Africa and the United States," Journal of American History, 81 (Dec. 1994), 1123-36.
243. See also James T. Campbell, Songs of Zion: The African Methodist Episcopal Church in the United States and South Africa (New York, 1995).
244. Waldemar A. Nielsen, The Big Foundations (New York, 1972), 32-33;
245. Ellen Condliffe Lagemann, The Politics of Knowledge: The Carnegie Corporation, Philanthropy, and Public Policy (Middletown, 1992), 30, 81. The Carnegie Corporation retracted its funding of the Eugenic Records Board in 1939 because of increasing condemnation of the boards overt racism, especially that of its superintendent, Harry Laughlin. I thank Alexander Stern for making this point to me. This section is based on the published Carnegie Commission reports from South Africa, the Carnegie Corporation archives at the Rare Book and Manuscript Library, Butler Library, Columbia University, New York; and the Kenyon Butterfield Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.
246. The relationship to American social science is particularly clear in the case of Hendrik Frensch Verwoerd, a psychologist who received his Ph.D. from the University of Stellenbosch and worked closely with members of the Carnegie Commission. See Roberta Balstad Miller, "Science and Society in the Early Career of H. F. Verwoerd," Journal of Southern African Studies, 19 (Dec. 1993), 634-61.
247. thank Grace Davie for pointing me to this article. Kenyon L. Butterfield, Report of Dr. Kenyon L. Butterfield on Rural Conditions and Sociological Problems in South Africa (New York, 1929), 9.
248. The recommendations of the Carnegie Commission were aimed not simply at "replacing unskilled 'Native' workers with 'poor Whites' but at establishing employment sanctuaries for white workers." See Adam Ashforth, The Politics of Official Discourse in Twentieth-Century South Africa (Oxford, Eng., 1990), 105.
249. See L. R. Wheeler, "The Intelligence of East Tennessee Mountain Children," Journal of Educational Psychology, 23 (May 1932), 351-70;
250. R. W. Wilcocks, "Psychological Observations on the Relation between Poor Whites and Non-Europeans," Social and Industrial Relations, 50 (May 1930), 3941-50;
251. R. W. Wilcocks, "On the Distribution and Growth of Intelligence," Journal of General Psychology, 6 (April 1932), 233-75.
252. (Wilcocks was an investigator for the Carnegie Commission, but this subsequent research was carried out at the University of Stellenbosch and funded by the South African government.) On the prominence of "racial thinking . . . in the early years of Carnegie Corporation grant-making," see Lagemann, Politics of Knowledge, 30.
253. The Carnegie grant for the poor white study provided for participation by experts from the United States, and the study was later disseminated to educational facilities throughout the United States. Studies of "race crossing" were simultaneously carried out by the Carnegie Institute in Jamaica and Central America. See C. B. Davenport and Morris Steggerda, Race Crossing in Jamaica (Washington, 1929);
254. Morris Steggerda, Anthropometry of Adult Maya Indians: A Study of Their Physical and Physiological Characteristics (Washington, 1932).
255. thank Alexander Stern for providing these references and those to the Web site below. For studies carried out by the Carnegie-funded Eugenics Records Office, see Dolan DNA Learning Center, Image Archive on the American Eugenics Movement 〈http://vector.cshl.org/eugenics〉 (July 17, 2001).
256. This is not to suggest that central premises of apartheid policy were not formulated earlier. See Martin Legassick, "British Hegemony and the Origins of Segregation in South Africa, 1901-1914," in Segregation and Apartheid in Twentieth-Century South Africa, ed. William Beinart and Saul DuBow (London, 1995), 43.
257. Carnegie Commission, Joint Findings and Recommendations of the Commission, Report of the Carnegie Commision of Investigation on the Poor White Question in South Africa (Stellenbosch, 1932), xix.
258. R. W. Wilcocks, "Rural Poverty among Whites in South Africa and in the South of the United States," April 5, 1933, Kenyon Butterfield Papers (Manuscript Division, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C.);
259. M. E. Rothman, The Mother and Daughter in the Poor Family, Part V. Sociological Report of the Poor White Problem in South Africa, Report of the Carnegie Commission (Stellenbosch, 1932), 151;
260. Carnegie Commission, Joint Findings and Recommendations of the Commission, x, xvii, xi;
261. Saul DuBow, Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa (New York, 1995), 172, 173n20.
262. See Michel Foucault's final 1976 Collège de France lecture on the birth of modern racism: Michel Foucault, "Faire vivre et laisser mourir: La naissance du racisme" (To make live and to let die: The birth of racism), Temps Modernes (no. 535, Feb. 1991), 37-61.
263. Wilcocks, "Rural Poverty among Whites in South Africa and in the South of the United States," xvi;
264. W. A. Murray, Health Factors in the Poor White Problem, Part IV. Health Report of the Poor White Problem in South Africa, Report of the Carnegie Commission (Stellenbosch, 1932), 7, 34.
265. Rothman, Mother and Daughter in the Poor Family, xxiii, 206-7, 212.
266. R. W. Wilcocks, The Poor White, Part II. Psychological Report of the Poor White Problem in South Africa (Stellenbosch, 1932), 62.
267. On the Rockefeller Foundation's hookworm project in the colonial Philippines, see Warwick Anderson, "Going through the Motions: Microbial Colonies, Germ Cultures, and an Unfaithful Imitation of American Hygiene," 2001 (in Stoler's possession).
268. Frances Gouda, "Nyonyas on the Colonial Divide," Gender and History, 5 (Nov. 1993), 335-36.
269. Consul General Coert du Bois, "The Problem of the Half Caste," Oct. 9, 1928 (microfilm: 856d.00-.40, roll 33, M 682), Records Relating to the Internal Affairs of the Netherlands, 1919-1929, Records of the Department of State.
270. Consul General Coert du Bois, "The European Population of Netherland India," Aug. 25, 1929, p. 12 (856d, roll 33, M 682), ibid.;
271. Memmi, Colonizer and the Colonized, 4.
272. Coert du Bois, "Problem of the Half Caste," 3.
273. On this modular quality, see Cooper and Stoler, "Between Metropole and Colony," 1-58.
274. Robert Gregg, too, argues that the international traffic in women between London, South Africa, and the New York Bowery is a prime subject for studying intersecting histories. See Gregg, Inside Out, Outside In, 9-18.
275. Ian Hacking, The Taming of Chance (Cambridge, Eng., 1990).
276. On the relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of a "will to knowledge" and Foucault's reworking of it, see Alan Sheridan, Michel Foucault: The Will to Truth (New York, 1980), 118-23.
277. See Dussel, Underside of Modernity, ed. and trans. Mendieta;
278. Fernando Coronil, "Beyond Occidentalism: Toward Nonimperial Geopolitical Categories," Cultural Anthropology, 11 (Jan. 1996), 51-87;
279. and Walter D. Mignolo, Local Histories/Global Designs: Coloniality: Subaltern Knowledges and Border Thinking (Princeton, 2000).
280. Even though Siam was a noncolonized region, its "geopolitical" history as a nation was shaped by impingements of European imperial expansion and colonial discourses of race, according to Thongchai Winichakul, Siam Mapped: A History of the Geo-Body of a Nation (Honolulu, 1994).
281. McClintock, Imperial Leather, 24.
282. On the movement of some women between the positions of concubine, wife, trader, mother, and slaveholder, see Indrani Chatterjee, "Colouring Subalternity: Slaves, Concubines, and Social Orphans in Early Colonial India," in Subaltern Studies X: Writings on South Asian History and Society, ed. Gautam Bhadra, Gyan Prakash, and Susie Tharu (New Delhi, 1999), 49-97.
283. Taylor, Social World of Batavia, 155.
284. See Timothy Mitchell, ed., Questions of Modernity (Minneapolis, 2000);
285. Rudolf Mrazek, "'Let Us Become Radio Mechanics': Technology and National Identity in Late-Colonial Netherlands East Indies," Comparative Studies in Society and History, 39 (Jan. 1997), 3-33;
286. Dipesh Chakrabarty, Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference (Princeton, 2000);
287. and Carole McGranahan, Arrested Histories: Between Empire and Exile in Modern Tibet" (Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 2001).