Endocrine Aspects of Critical Care Medicine

Endocrinology: Adult and Pediatric, Sixth Edition

Volumn 2, Issue , 2010, Pages 2084-2095

  Van Den Berghe, Greet ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84899953793     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-4160-5583-9.00114-3     Document Type: Chapter

References (136)

1. SJ Streat, AH Beddoe and GL Hill (1987) Aggressive nutritional support does not prevent protein loss despite fat gain in septic intensive care patients. J Trauma 27 262-266.
2. P Carroll (1999) Protein metabolism and the use of growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-I in the critically ill patient. Growth Horm IGF Res 9 400-413.
3. G Van den Berghe, RC Baxter, F Weekers, et al. (2000) A paradoxical gender dissociation within the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor I axis during protracted critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 85 183-192.
4. WA Knaus, EA Draper, DP Wagner, et al. (1985) APACHE II: a severity of disease classification system. Crit Care Med 13 818-829.
5. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher and R Bouillon (1998) Acute and prolonged critical illness as different neuroendocrine paradigms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 1827-1834.
6. G Van den Berghe, P Wouters, F Weekers, et al. (1999) Reactivation of pituitary hormone release and metabolic improvement by infusion of growth hormone–releasing peptide and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in patients with protracted critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 1311-1323.
7. MO Thorner, ML Vance, ER Laws, et al. (1998) The anterior pituitary. JD Wilson, DW Foster, HM Kronenberg, PR Larsen,(Eds) Williams Textbook of Endocrinology ed 9 Philadelphia: Saunders 249-340.
8. CY Bowers, FA Momany, GA Reynolds, et al. (1984) On the in vitro and in vivo activity of a new synthetic hexapeptide that acts on the pituitary to specifically release growth hormone. Endocrinology 114 1537-1545.
9. AD Howard, SD Feighner, DF Cully, et al. (1996) A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release. Science 273 974-977.
10. M Kojima, H Hosoda, Y Date, et al. (1999) Ghrelin is a growth hormone–releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature 402 656-660.
11. EF Gevers, JM Wit and IC Robinson (1996) Growth, growth hormone (GH) binding protein, and GH receptors are differentially regulated by peak and trough components of GH secretory pattern in the rat. Endocrinology 137 1013-1018.
12. A Giustina and JD Veldhuis (1998) Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human. Endocr Rev 19 717-797.
13. PC Hindmarsh, E Dennison, SM Pincus, et al. (1999) A sexually dimorphic pattern of growth hormone secretion in the elderly illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 2679-2685.
14. R Ross, J Miell, E Freeman, et al. (1991) Critically ill patients have high basal growth hormone levels with attenuated oscillatory activity associated with low levels of insulin-like growth factor 1. Clin Endocrinol 35 47-54.
15. HJ Voerman, RJM Strack van Schijndel, H de Boer, et al. (1992) Growth hormone: secretion and administration in catabolic adult patients, with emphasis on the critically ill patient. Neth J Med 41 229-244.
16. ML Hartman, JD Veldhuis, ML Johnson, et al. (1992) Augmented growth hormone secretory burst frequency and amplitude mediate enhanced GH secretion during a two day fast in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 74 757-765.
17. M Hermansson, RB Wickelgren, F Hammerqvist, et al. (1997) Measurement of human growth hormone receptor messenger ribonucleic acid by a quantitative polymerase chain-reaction-based assay: Demonstration of reduced expression after elective surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 421-428.
18. RC Baxter, FH Hawker, C To, et al. (1998) Thirty-day monitoring of insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in intensive care unit patients. Growth Horm IGF Res 8 455-463.
19. J Rodriguez-Arnao, Y Yarwood, C Ferguson, et al. (1996) Reduction in circulating IGF-I and hepatic IGF-I mRNA levels after cecal ligation and puncture are associated with differential regulation of hepatic IGF-binding protein-1, -2 and -3 mRNA levels. J Endocrinol 151 287-292.
20. J Bentham, J Rodriguez-Arnao and RJ Ross (1993) Acquired growth hormone resistance in patients with hypercatabolism. Horm Res 40 87-91.
21. AC Timmins, AM Cotterill, SC Cwyfan Hughes, et al. (1996) Critical illness is associated with low circulating concentrations of insulin-like growth factors-I and -II, alterations in insulin-like growth factor binding proteins, and induction of an insulin-like growth factor binding protein-3 protease. Crit Care Med 24 1460-1466.
22. FA Gibson and CJ Hinds (1997) Growth Hormone and insulin-like growth factors in critical illness. Intensive Care Med 23 369-378.
23. G Van den Berghe, RC Baxter, F Weekers, et al. (2002) The combined administration of GH-releasing peptide 2 (GHRP-2), TRH, and GnRH to men with prolonged critical illness evokes superior endocrine and metabolic effects than treatment with GHRP-2 alone. Clin Endocrinol 56 655-669.
24. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, JD Veldhuis, et al. (1997) The somatotropic axis in critical illness: Effect of continuous GHRH and GHRP-2 infusion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 590-599.
25. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, RC Baxter, et al. (1998) Neuroendocrinology of prolonged critical illness: effect of continuous thyrotropin-releasing hormone infusion and its combination with growth hormone-secretagogues. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 309-319.
26. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, P Lauwers, et al. (1994) Growth hormone secretion in critical illness: effect of dopamine. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79 1141-1146.
27. G Van den Berghe and F de Zegher (1996) Anterior pituitary function during critical illness and dopamine treatment. Crit Care Med 24 1580-1590.
28. D Micic, V Popovic, M Doknic, et al. (1998) Preserved growth hormone (GH) secretion in aged and very old subjects after testing with the combined stimulus GH-releasing hormone plus GH-releasing hexapeptide 6. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83 2569-2572.
29. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, CY Bowers, et al. (1996) Pituitary responsiveness to growth hormone (GH)-releasing hormone, GH-releasing peptide 2, and thyrotropin-releasing hormone in critical illness. Clin Endocrinol 45 341-351.
30. J Takala, E Ruokonen, NR Webster, et al. (1999) Increased mortality associated with growth hormone treatment in critically ill adults. N Engl J Med 341 785-792.
31. G Van den Berghe (1999) Whither growth hormone in the catabolic state of critical illness? Growth Horm IGF Res 9 397-399.
32. JS Christiansen, BA Bengtsson, MO Thorner, et al. (2001) Critical Evaluation of the safety of recombinant human growth hormone administration: Statement from the growth hormone research society. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 1868-1870.
33. M Michalaki, A Vagenakis, M Makri, et al. (2001) Dissociation of the early decline in serum T3 concentration and serum IL-6 rise and TNF alfa in non-thyroidal illness syndrome induced by abdominal surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 4198-4205.
34. IJ Chopra, TS Huang, A Beredo, et al. (1985) Evidence for an inhibitor of extrathyroidal conversion of thyroxine to 3,5,3-triiodothyronine in sera of patients with non-thyroidal illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60 666-672.
35. JA Romijn and WM Wiersinga (1990) Decreased nocturnal surge of thyrotropin in nonthyroidal illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70 35-42.
36. L Bartalena, E Martino, LS Brandi, et al. (1990) Lack of nocturnal serum thyrotropin surge after surgery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 70 293-296.
37. JL Schlienger, R Sapin, T Capgras, et al. (1991) Evaluation of thyroid function after myocardial infarction. Ann Endocrinol (Paris) 52 283-288.
38. PM Rothwell and PG Lawler (1995) Prediction of outcome in intensive care patients using endocrine parameters. Crit Care Med 23 78-83.
39. T van der Poll, K van Zee, E Endert, et al. (1995) Interleukin-1 receptor blockade does not affect endotoxin-induced changes in plasma thyroid hormone and thyrotropin concentration in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80 1341-1346.
40. CF Lim, R Doctor, TJ Visser, et al. (1993) Inhibition of thyroxine transport into cultured rat hepatocytes by serum of non-uremic critically ill patients: Effects of bilirubin and non-esterified fatty acids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76 1165-1172.
41. DF Gardner, MM Kaplan, CA Stanley, et al. (1979) Effect of triiodothyronine replacement on the metabolic and pituitary responses to starvation. N Engl J Med 300 579-584.
42. LJ De Groot (1999) Dangerous dogmas in medicine: the nonthyroidal illness syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 151-164.
43. JD Kemperer, I Klein, M Gomez, et al. (1995) Thyroid hormone treatment after coronary bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 333 1522-1527.
44. SL Mullis-Jansson, M Argenziano, S Corwin, et al. (1999) A randomized double blind study on the effect of triiodothyronine on cardiac function and morbidity after coronary bypass surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 117 1128-1134.
45. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, JD Veldhuis, et al. (1997) Thyrotropin and prolactin release in prolonged critical illness: dynamics of spontaneous secretion and effects of growth hormone secretagogues. Clin Endocrinol 47 599-612.
46. E Fliers, SEF Guldenaar, WM Wiersinga, et al. (1997) Decreased hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone gene expression in patients with non-thyroidal illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82 4032-4036.
47. V Bacci, GC Schussler and TC Kaplan (1982) The relationship between serum triiodothyronine and thyrotropin during systemic illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 54 1229-1235.
48. P Damas, A Reuter, P Gysen, et al. (1989) Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 serum levels during severe sepsis in humans. Crit Care Med 17 975-978.
49. G Faglia, C Ferrari, P Beck-Peccoz, et al. (1973) Reduced plasma thyrotropin response to thyrotropin releasing hormone after dexamethasone administration in normal humans. Horm Metab Res 5 289-291.
50. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, D Vlasselaers, et al. (1996) Thyrotropin releasing hormone in critical illness: from a dopamine-dependent test to a strategy for increasing low serum triiodothyronine, prolactin, and growth hormone concentrations. Crit Care Med 24 590-595.
51. R Peeters, P Wouters, E Kaptein, et al. (2003) Reduced activation and increased inactivation of thyroid hormone in tissues of critically ill patients. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 3202-3211.
52. F Weekers, M Michalaki, W Coopmans, et al. (2004) Endocrine and metabolic effects of growth hormone (GH) compared with GH-releasing peptide, thyrotropin releasing hormone and insulin infusion in a rabbit model of prolonged critical illness. Endocrinology 145 205-213.
53. Y Debaveye, B Ellger, G Van den Berghe, et al. (2008) Regulation of tissue iodothyronine deiodinase activity in a model of prolonged critical illness. Thyroid 18 551-560.
54. DC Thijssen-Timmer, RP Peeters, P Wouters, et al. (2007) Thyroid hormone receptor isoform expression in livers of critically ill patients. Thyroid 17 105-112.
55. Y Debaveye, B Ellger, L Mebis, et al. (2005) Tissue deiodinase activity during prolonged critical illness: Effects of exogenous thyrotropin-releasing hormone and its combination with growth hormone–releasing peptide 2. Endocrinology 146 5604-5611.
56. G Van den Berghe, P Wouters, CY Bowers, et al. (1999) Growth hormone–releasing peptide 2 infusion synchronizes growth hormone, thyrotropin, and prolactin secretion in prolonged critical illness. Eur J Endocrinol 140 17-22.
57. R Arem, GJ Wiener, SG Kaplan, et al. (1993) Reduced tissue thyroid hormone levels in fatal illness. Metabolism 42 1102-1108.
58. GM Vaughan, AD Mason, WF McManus, et al. (1985) Alterations of mental status and thyroid hormones after thermal injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60 1221-1225.
59. GA Brent and JM Hershman (1986) Thyroxine therapy in patients with severe non-thyroidal illnesses and low serum thyroxine concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 63 1-7.
60. RA Becker, GM Vaughan, MG Ziegler, et al. (1982) Hypermetabolic low triiodothyronine syndrome in burn injury. Crit Care Med 10 870-875.
61. M Bettendorf, KG Schmidt, J Grulich-Henn, et al. (2000) Triiodothyronine treatment in children after cardiac surgery: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study. Lancet 356 529-534.
62. JT Nicoloff (1985) Thyroid storm and myxedema coma. Med Clin North Am 69 1005-1017.
63. MD Ringel (2001) Management of hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism in the intensive care unit. Crit Care Clin 17 59-74.
64. EM Kaptein, H Quion-Verde, RS Swinney, et al. (1986) Acute hemodynamic effects of levothyroxine loading in critically ill hypothyroid patients. Arch Intern Med 146 662-666.
65. HF Escobar-Morreale, MJ Obregon, F Escobar del Rey, et al. (1995) Replacement therapy for hypothyroidism with thyroxine alone does not ensure euthyroidism in all tissues, as studied in thyroidectomized rats. J Clin Invest 96 2828-2838.
66. R Bunevicius, G Kazanavicius, R Zalinkevicius, et al. (1999) Effects of thyroxine plus triiodothyronine in patients with hypothyroidism. N Engl J Med 340 424-429.
67. WM Wiersinga (2001) Thyroid hormone replacement therapy. Horm Res 56 74-81.
68. DH Russell (1989) New aspects of prolactin and immunity: a lymphocyte-derived prolactin-like product and nuclear protein kinase C activation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 10 40-44.
69. EW Bernton, MS Meltzer and JW Holaday (1988) Suppression of macrophage activation and T-lymphocyte function in hypoprolactinemic mice. Science 239 401-404.
70. DH Russell, DF Larson, SB Cardon, et al. (1984) Cyclosporin inhibits prolactin induction of ornithine decarboxylase in rat tissue. Mol Cell Endocrinol 35 159-166.
71. DH Russell, R Kibler, L Matrisian, et al. (1985) Prolactin receptors on human T- and B-lymphocytes: antagonism of prolactin binding by cyclosporin. J Immunol 134 3027-3031.
72. M Carrier, J Wild, C Pelletier, et al. (1990) Bromocriptine as an adjuvant to cyclosporine immunosuppression after heart transplantation. Ann Thorac Surg 49 129-132.
73. GL Noel, HK Suh, SJG Stone, et al. (1972) Human prolactin and growth hormone release during surgery and other conditions of stress. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 35 840-851.
74. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher and P Lauwers (1994) Dopamine and the euthyroid sick syndrome in critical illness. Clin Endocrinol 41 731-737.
75. JL Meakins, JB Pietsch, O Bubenick, et al. (1977) Delayed hypersensitivity: Indicator of acquired failure of host defenses in sepsis and trauma. Ann Surg 188 241-250.
76. SS Devins, A Miller, BL Herndon, et al. (1992) Effects of dopamine on T-lymphocyte proliferative responses and serum prolactin concentrations in critically ill patients. Crit Care Med 263 9682-9685.
77. PE Belchetz, TM Plant, Y Nakai, et al. (1978) Hypophyseal responses to continuous and intermittent delivery of hypothalamic gonadotropin-releasing hormone. Science 202 631-633.
78. N Santoro, M Filicori and WF Crowley Jr (1986) Hypogonadotropic disorders in men and women: Diagnosis and therapy with pulsatile gonadotropin releasing hormone. Endocr Rev 7 11-23.
79. A Klibanski, IZ Beitens, TM Badger, et al. (1981) Reproductive function during fasting in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53 258-266.
80. JD Veldhuis, A Iranmanesh, WS Evans, et al. (1993) Amplitude suppression of the pulsatile mode of immunoradiometric LH release in fasting-induced hypoandrogenemia in normal men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76 587-593.
81. C Wang, V Chan and RTT Yeung (1978) Effect of surgical stress on pituitary-testicular function. Clin Endocrinol 9 255-266.
82. C Wang, V Chan, TF Tse, et al. (1978) Effect of acute myocardial infarction on pituitary testicular function. Clin Endocrinol 9 249-253.
83. AV Vogel, GT Peake and RT Rada (1985) Pituitary-testicular axis dysfunction in burned men. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60 658-665.
84. ED Lephart, CR Baxter and CR Parker Jr (1987) Effect of burn trauma on adrenal and testicular steroid hormone production. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 64 842-848.
85. LD Kreutz, RM Rose and JR Jennings (1972) Suppression of plasma testosterone levels and psychological stress: a longitudinal study of young men in officer candidate school. Arch Gen Psychiatry 26 479-482.
86. A Aakvaag, O Bentdal, K Quigstad, et al. (1978) Testosterone and testosterone-binding globulin in young men during prolonged stress. Int J Androl 1 22-31.
87. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, P Lauwers, et al. (1994) Luteinizing hormone secretion and hypoandrogenemia in critically ill men: effect of dopamine. Clin Endocrinol 41 563-569.
88. Q Dong, F Hawker, D McWilliam, et al. (1992) Circulating immunoreactive inhibin and testosterone levels in patients with critical illness. Clin Endocrinol 36 399-404.
89. C Rivier and W Vale (1989) In the rat, interleukin 1-a acts at the level of the brain and the gonads to interfere with gonadotropin and sex steroid secretion. Endocrinology 124 2105-2109.
90. H Guo, JH Calkins, MM Sigel, et al. (1990) Interleukin-2 is a potent inhibitor of Leydig cell steroidogenesis. Endocrinology 127 1234-1239.
91. PD Woolf, RW Hamill, JV McDonald, et al. (1985) Transient hypogonadotropic hypogonadism caused by critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60 444-450.
92. DI Spratt, P Cox, J Orav, et al. (1993) Reproductive axis suppression in acute illness is related to disease severity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76 1548-1554.
93. TJ Cicero, RD Bell, WG Wiest, et al. (1975) Function of the male sex organs in heroin and methadone users. N Engl J Med 292 882-887.
94. D Tweedle, C Walton and IDA Johnston (1972) The effect of an anabolic steroid on postoperative nitrogen balance. Br J Clin Pract 27 130-132.
95. G Van den Berghe, F Weekers, RC Baxter, et al. (2001) Five days pulsatile GnRH administration unveils combined hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal defects underlying profound hypoandrogenism in men with prolonged critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 86 3217-3226.
96. E O’Leary, K Hubbard, W Tormey, et al. (1996) Laparoscopic cholecystectomy: hemodynamic and neuroendocrine responses after pneumoperitoneum and changes in position. Br J Anaesth 76 640-644.
97. A Munck, P Guyre and N Holbrook (1984) Physiological functions of glucocorticoids during stress and their relation to pharmacological actions. Endocr Rev 5 25-44.
98. EH Starling (1923) The Wisdom of the Body. The Harveian Oration Delivered to the Royal College of Physicians. London: H.K. Lewis
99. WB Cannon (1932) The Wisdom of the Body. New York: Norton
100. I Vermes, A Bieshuizen, RM Hampsink, et al. (1995) Dissociation of plasma adrenocorticotropin and cortisol levels in critically ill patients: possible role of endothelin and atrial natriuretic hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80 1238-1242.
101. T Suzuki, N Suzuki, RA Daynes, et al. (1991) Dehydroepiandrosterone enhances IL-2 production and cytotoxic effector function of human T cells. Clin Immunol Immunopathol 61 202-211.
102. LN Parker, ER Levin and E Lifrak (1985) Evidence for adrenocortical adaptation to severe illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 60 947-952.
103. G Van den Berghe, F de Zegher, M Schetz, et al. (1995) Dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate in critical illness: effect of dopamine. Clin Endocrinol 43 457-463.
104. RD Zipser, MW Davenport, KL Martin, et al. (1981) Hyperreninemic hypoaldosteronism in the critically ill: a new entity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 53 867-873.
105. E Barquist and O Kirton (1997) Adrenal insufficiency in the surgical intensive care unit patient. J Trauma 42 27-31.
106. A Beishuizen, I Vermes, BS Hylkema, et al. (1999) Relative eosinophilia and functional adrenal insufficiency in critically ill patients [letter]. Lancet 353 1675-1676.
107. D Annane, V Sebille, G Troche, et al. (2000) A 3-level prognostic classification in septic shock based on cortisol levels and cortisol response to corticotropin. JAMA 283 1038-1045.
108. ML Richards, RH Caplan, GG Wickus, et al. (1999) The rapid low-dose (1 microgram) cosyntropin test in the immediate postoperative period: Results in elderly subjects after major abdominal surgery. Surgery 125 431-440.
109. PE Bollaert, C Charpentier, B Levy, et al. (1998) Reversal of late septic shock with supraphysiological doses of hydrocortisone. Crit Care Med 26 645-650.
110. J Briegel, H Forst, M Haller, et al. (1999) Stress doses of hydrocortisone reverse hyperdynamic septic shock: a prospective, randomized, double-blind, single-center study. Crit Care Med 27 723-733.
111. D Annane, V Sébille, C Charpentier, et al. (2002) Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 288 862-871.
112. CL Sprung, D Annane, D Keh, et al. (2008) CORTICUS Study Group: hydrocortisone therapy for patients with septic shock. N Engl J Med 358 111-124.
113. D Mesotten, I Vanhorebeek and G Van den Berghe (2008) The altered adrenal axis and treatment with glucocorticoids during critical illness. Nat Clin Pract Endocrinol Metab 4 496-505.
114. DHP Streeten (1999) What test for hypothalamic-pituitary adrenocortical insufficiency? Lancet 354 179-180.
115. G Van den Berghe (2000) Novel insights into the neuroendocrinology of critical illness. Eur J Endocrinol 143 1-13.
116. SI Yeoh and RC Baxter (1988) Metabolic regulation of the growth hormone independent insulin-like growth factor binding protein in human plasma. Acta Endocrinol 119 465-473.
117. MS Lewitt and RC Baxter (1989) Regulation of growth hormone-independent insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (BP-28) in cultured human fetal liver explants. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 69 246-252.
118. MS Lewitt and RC Baxter (1990) Inhibitors of glucose uptake stimulate the production of insulin-like growth factor binding protein (IGFBP-1) by human fetal liver. Endocrinology 126 1527-1533.
119. RC Baxter (1993) Circulating binding proteins for the insulin-like growth factors. Trends Endocrinol Metab 4 91-96.
120. H Norrelund, S Fisker, N Vahl, et al. (1999) Evidence supporting a direct suppressive effect of growth hormone on serum IGFBP-1 levels, experimental studies in normal, obese and GH-deficient adults. Growth Horm IGF Res 9 52-60.
121. H Olivecrona, A Hilding, C Ekström, et al. (1999) Acute and short-term effects of growth hormone on insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins: serum levels and hepatic messenger ribonucleic acid responses in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 84 553-560.
122. PJD Delhanty and RC Baxter (1998) The regulation of acid-labile subunit gene expression and secretion by cyclic adenosine 3′,5′-monophosphate. Endocrinology 139 260-265.
123. M Hu, DG Robertson and LJ Murphy (1996) Growth hormone modulates insulin regulation of hepatic insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 transcription. Endocrinology 137 3702-3709.
124. G Van den Berghe, P Wouters, F Weekers, et al. (2001) Intensive insulin therapy in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 345 1357-1367.
125. G Van den Berghe, A Wilmer, G Hermans, et al. (2006) Intensive insulin therapy of medical intensive care patients. N Engl J Med 354 449-461.
126. G Van den Berghe, A Wilmer, I Milants, et al. (2006) Intensive insulin therapy in mixed medical/surgical ICU: benefit versus harm. Diabetes 55 3151-3159.
127. G Van den Berghe, K Schoonheydt, P Becx, et al. (2005) Intensive insulin therapy protects the central and peripheral nervous system of intensive care patients. Neurology 64 1348-1353.
128. G Hermans, A Wilmer, W Meersseman, et al. (2007) Impact of intensive insulin therapy on neuromuscular complications and ventilator-dependency in MICU. Am J Resp Crit Care Med 175 480-489.
129. F Weekers, A-P Giuletti, M Michalaki, et al. (2003) Metabolic, endocrine, and immune effects of stress hyperglycemia in a rabbit model of prolonged critical illness. Endocrinology 144 5329-5338.
130. D Mesotten, J Swinnen, F Vanderhoydonc, et al. (2004) Contribution of circulating lipids to the improved outcome of critical illness by glycemic control with intensive insulin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 89 219-226.
131. TK Hansen, S Thiel, PJ Wouters, et al. (2003) Intensive insulin therapy exerts anti-inflammatory effects in critically ill patients, as indicated by circulating mannan-binding lectin and C-reactive protein levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 88 1082-1088.
132. L Langouche, I Vanhorebeek, D Vlasselaers, et al. (2005) Intensive insulin therapy protects the endothelium of critically ill patients. J Clin Invest 115 2277-2286.
133. I Vanhorebeek, R De Vos, M Mesotten, et al. (2005) Protection of hepatocyte mitochondrial ultrastructure and function by strict blood glucose control with insulin in critically ill patients. Lancet 365 53-59.
134. FM Brunkhorst, C Engel, F Bloos, et al. (2008) German Competence Network Sepsis (SepNet): intensive insulin therapy and pentastarch resuscitation in severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 358 125-139.
135. D Vlasselaers, I Milants, L Desmet, et al. (2009) Intensive insulin therapy in paediatric intensive care unit patients: a prospective randomized controlled study. Lancet 373 547-556.
136. NICE-SUGAR Study Investigators S Finfer, DR Chittock, SY Su, et al. (2009) Intensive versus conventional glucose control in critically ill patients. N Engl J Med 360(13), 1283-1297.