Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry interpretation and reporting in children and adolescents: The revised 2013 ISCD pediatric official positions

Journal of Clinical Densitometry

Volumn 17, Issue 2, 2014, Pages 225-242

  Crabtree, Nicola J ^a   Arabi, Asma ^b   Bachrach, Laura K ^c   Fewtrell, Mary ^d   El Hajj Fuleihan, Ghada ^b   Kecskemethy, Heidi H ^e   Jaworski, Maciej ^f   Gordon, Catherine M ^g  

^a BIRMINGHAM CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b AMERICAN UNIVERSITY OF BEIRUT   (Lebanon)

^c STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

^e NEMOURS ALFRED I DUPONT HOSPITAL FOR CHILDREN   (United States)

^f CHILDREN'S MEMORIAL HEALTH INSTITUTE   (Poland)

^g BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Bone mineral content; Bone mineral density; Children; Dual energy X ray absorptiometry; Guidelines

Indexed keywords

ADOLESCENT; ARTICLE; BODY HEIGHT; BONE AGE; BONE DENSITOMETRY; BONE DENSITY; BONE MASS; CHILD; DEMOGRAPHY; DUAL ENERGY X RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; FEMUR; FOREARM; GROWTH RETARDATION; HUMAN; MEASUREMENT ACCURACY; MEDICAL INFORMATION; MEDICAL SOCIETY; PEDIATRICS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROTOCOL COMPLIANCE; REFERENCE DATABASE; SHORT STATURE;

BONE MINERAL CONTENT; BONE MINERAL DENSITY; CHILDREN; DUAL-ENERGY X-RAY ABSORPTIOMETRY; GUIDELINES;

ABSORPTIOMETRY, PHOTON; ADOLESCENT; AGE DETERMINATION BY SKELETON; BODY COMPOSITION; BODY HEIGHT; CHILD; DOCUMENTATION; HUMANS; PEDIATRICS; REFERENCE VALUES; REPRODUCIBILITY OF RESULTS; TERMINOLOGY AS TOPIC;

EID: 84899926793     PISSN: 10946950     EISSN: 15590747     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.jocd.2014.01.003     Document Type: Article

References (185)

1. Gordon C.M., Bachrach L.K., Carpenter T.O., et al. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry interpretation and reporting in children and adolescents: the 2007 ISCD Pediatric Official Positions. J Clin Densitom 2008, 11(1):43-58.
2. Bailey D.A., Martin A.D., McKay H.A., et al. Calcium accretion in girls and boys during puberty: a longitudinal analysis. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:2245-2250.
3. Theintz G., Buchs B., Rizzoli R., et al. Longitudinal monitoring of bone mass accumulation in healthy adolescents: evidence for a marked reduction after 16 years of age at the levels of lumbar spine and femoral neck in female subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992, 75:1060-1065.
4. Bachrach L.K. Osteoporosis and measurement of bone mass in children and adolescents. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 2005, 34:521-535.
5. Gordon C.M. Measurement of bone density in children. Curr Opin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 12:444-451.
6. Bonjour J.P., Theintz G., Buchs B., et al. Critical years and stages of puberty for spinal and femoral bone mass accumulation during adolescence. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991, 73:555-563.
7. Recker R.R., Davies K.M., Hinders S.M., et al. Bone gain in young adult women. JAMA 1992, 268:2403-2408.
8. Lloyd T., Rollings N., Andon D.B., et al. Determinants of bone density in young women. I. Relationships among pubertal development, total body bone mass, and total body bone density in premenarchal females. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1992, 75:383-387.
9. Heaney R.P., Abrams S., Dawson-Hughes B., et al. Peak bone mass. Osteoporos Int 2000, 11:985-1009.
10. Melton L.J., Kan S.H., Frye M.A., et al. Epidemiology of vertebral fractures in women. Am J Epidemiol 1989, 129:1000-1011.
11. Hui S.L., Slemenda C.W., Johnston C.C. The contribution of bone loss to postmenopausal osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int 1990, 1:30-34.
12. Soyka L.A., Fairfield W.P., Klibanski A. Hormonal determinants and disorders of peak bone mass in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85:3951-3963.
13. Roth J., Palm C., Scheuneman I., et al. Musculoskeletal abnormalities of the forearm in patients with juvenile idiopathic arthritis relate mainly to bone geometry. Arthritis Rheum 2004, 50:1277-1285.
14. Burnham J.M., Shults J., Semeao E., et al. Whole body BMC in pediatric Crohn disease: independent effects of altered growth, maturation, and body composition. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:1961-1968.
15. Bielinski B.K., Darbyshire P.J., Mathers L., et al. Impact of disordered puberty on bone density in beta-thalassaemia major. Br J Haematol 2003, 120:353-358.
16. Rauch F., Plotkin H., Zeitlin H., Glorieux F.H. Bone mass, size, and density in children and adolescents with osteogenesis imperfecta: effect of intravenous pamidronate therapy. J Bone Miner Res 2003, 18:610-614.
17. Miller K.K., Lee E.E., Lawson E.A., et al. Determinants of skeletal loss and recovery in anorexia nervosa. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91:2931-2937.
18. Gafni R.I., Baron J. Overdiagnosis of osteoporosis in children due to misinterpretation of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA). J Pediatr 2004, 144:253-257.
19. Binkovitz L.A., Henwood M.J. Pediatric DXA: technique and interpretation. Pediatr Radiol 2007, 37:21-31.
20. Fewtrell M.S. Bone densitometry in children assessed by dual x-ray absorptiometry: uses and pitfalls. Arch Dis Child 2003, 88:795-798. British Pediatric & Adolescent Bone Group.
21. Arabi A., Nabulsi M., Maalouf J., et al. Bone mineral density by age, gender, pubertal stages, and socioeconomic status in healthy Lebanese children and adults. Bone 2004, 35:1169-1179.
22. Ward K.A., Ashby R.L., Roberts S.A., et al. UK reference data for the Hologic QDR Discovery dual-energy x ray absorptiometry scanner in healthy children and young adults aged 6-17 years. Arch Dis Child 2007, 92:53-59.
23. Cooper C., Dennison E.M., Leufkens H.G., et al. Epidemiology of childhood fractures in Britain: a study using the general practice research database. J Bone Miner Res 2004, 19:1976-1981.
24. Faulkner R.A., Davison K.W., Bailey D.A., et al. Size-corrected BMD decreases during peak linear growth: implications for fracture incidence during adolescence. J Bone Miner Res 2006, 21:1864-1870.
25. Jones I.E., Taylor R.W., Williams S.M., et al. Four-year gain in bone mineral in girls with and without past forearm fractures: a DXA study. J Bone Miner Res 2002, 17:1065-1072.
26. Goulding A., Gold E., Cannan R., et al. Changing femoral geometry in growing girls: a cross-sectional DEXA study. Bone 1996, 19:645-649.
27. Goulding A., Cannan R., Williams S.M., et al. Bone mineral density in girls with forearm fractures. J Bone Miner Res 1998, 13:143-148.
28. Goulding A., Jones I.E., Taylor R.W., et al. More broken bones: a 4-year double cohort study of young girls with and without distal forearm fractures. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:2011-2018.
29. Goulding A., Taylor R.W., Jones I.E., et al. Overweight and obese children have low bone mass and area for their weight. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2000, 24:627-632.
30. Goulding A., Jones I.E., Taylor R.W., et al. Bone mineral density and body composition in boys with distal forearm fractures: a dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry study. J Pediatr 2001, 139:509-515.
31. Goulding A., Jones I.E., Taylor R.W., et al. Dynamic and static tests of balance and postural sway in boys: effects of previous wrist bone fractures and high adiposity. Gait Posture 2003, 17:136-141.
32. Goulding A., Rockell J.E., Black R.E., et al. Children who avoid drinking cow's milk are at increased risk for prepubertal bone fractures. J Am Diet Assoc 2004, 104:250-253.
33. Goulding A., Grant A.M., Williams S.M. Bone and body composition of children and adolescents with repeated forearm fractures. J Bone Miner Res 2005, 20:2090-2096.
34. Goulding A., Jones I.E., Williams S.M., et al. First fracture is associated with increased risk of new fractures during growth. J Pediatr 2005, 146:286-288.
35. Jones G., Nguyen T.V. Associations between maternal peak bone mass and bone mass in prepubertal male and female children. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:1998-2004.
36. Jones G. Growth, children, and fractures. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2004, 2:75-78.
37. Jones G., Ma D.Q. Skeletal age deviation assessed by the Tanner-White house II method is associated with bone mass and fracture risk in children. Bone 2005, 36:352-357.
38. Jones I.E., Cannan R., Goulding A. Distal forearm fractures in New Zealand children: annual rates in a geographically defined area. N Z Med J 2000, 113:443-445.
39. Jones I.E., Williams S.M., Dow N., Goulding A. How many children remain fracture-free during growth? A longitudinal study of children and adolescents participating in the Dunedin multidisciplinary health and development study. Osteoporos Int 2002, 13:990-995.
40. Jones I.E., Williams S.M., Goulding A. Associations of birth weight and length, childhood size, and smoking with bone fractures during growth: evidence from a birth cohort. Am J Epidemiol 2004, 159:343-350.
41. Jones G., Ma D., Cameron F. Bone density interpretation and relevance in Caucasian children aged 9-17 years of age: insights from a population-based fracture study. J Clin Densitom 2006, 9:202-209.
42. Yeh F.J., Grant A.M., Williams S.M., Goulding A. Children who experience their first fracture at a young age have high rates of fracture. Osteoporos Int 2006, 17:267-272.
43. Ferrari S.L., Chevalley T., Bonjour J.P., Rizzoli R. Childhood fractures are associated with decreased bone mass gain during puberty: an early marker of persistent bone fragility?. J Bone Miner Res 2006, 21:501-507.
44. Clark E., Ness A.R., Bishop N.J., Tobias J.H. Association between bone mass and fractures in children: a prospective cohort study. J Bone Miner Res 2006, 21:1489-1495.
45. Shepherd J.A., Wang L., Fan B., et al. Optimal monitoring time interval between DXA measures in children. J Bone Miner Res 2011, 26(11):2745-2752.
46. Johnson J., Dawson Hughes B. Precision and stability of dual-energy-x-ray absorptiometry measurements. Calcif Tissue Int 1991, 49:174-178.
47. Sievanen H., Oja P., Vuori I. Precision of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in determining bone mineral density and content of various skeletal sites. J Nucl Med 1991, 33:1137-1142.
48. Tothill P., Avenill A., Rein D.M. Precision and accuracy of measurements of whole body bone mineral: comparisons between Hologic, Lunar, and Norland dual-energy x-ray absorptiometers. Br J Radiol 1994, 67:1210-1217.
49. Rauch F., Neu C.M., Manz F., Schoenau E. The development of metaphyseal cortex-implications for distal radius fractures during growth. J Bone Miner Res 2001, 16:1547-1555.
50. Crabtree N.J., Kent K., Zemel B. Acquisition of DXA in children and adolescents. Bone Densitometry in Growing Patients 2007, 81. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. A.E. Sawyer, L.K. Bachrach, E.B. Fung (Eds.).
51. Zemel B.S., Kalkwarf H., Leonard M.B., et al. What DXA measurement sites are best for bone health assessment in children? Effect of inter-machine differences on bone outcomes from the Bone Mineral Density in Childhood Study. Bone Abstr 2013, 2. 10.1530/boneabs.2.OC14.
52. Soyka L.A., Grinspoon S., Levitsky L.L., et al. The effects of anorexia nervosa on bone metabolism in female adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999, 84:4489-4496.
53. Gordon C.M., Goodman E., Emans S.J., et al. Physiologic regulators of bone turnover in young women with anorexia nervosa. J Pediatr 2002, 141:64-70.
54. Herzog D., Bishop N., Glorieux F., Seidman E.G. Interpretation of bone mineral density values in pediatric Crohn's disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis 1998, 4:261-267.
55. Burnham J.M., Shults J., Semeao E., et al. Body-composition alterations consistent with cachexia in children and young adults with Crohn disease. Am J Clin Nutr 2005, 82:413-420.
56. von Scheven E., Gordon C.M., Wypij D., et al. Variable deficits of bone mineral despite chronic glucocorticoid therapy in pediatric patients with inflammatory diseases: a Glaser Pediatric Research Network study. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2006, 19:821-830.
57. Leonard M.B., Feldman H.I., Shults J., et al. Long-term, high-dose glucocorticoids and bone mineral content in childhood glucocorticoid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome. N Engl J Med 2004, 351:868-875.
58. Moynahan M., Betz R.R., Triolo R.J., Maurer A.H. Characterization of the bone mineral density of children with spinal cord injury. J Spinal Cord Med 1996, 19:249-254.
59. Tasdemir H.A., Buyukavci M., Akcay F., et al. Bone mineral density in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Int 2001, 43:157-160.
60. Henderson R.C., Lark R.K., Gurka M., et al. Bone density and metabolism in children and adolescents with moderate to severe cerebral palsy. Pediatrics 2002, 110:1-10.
61. Bianchi M.L., Mazzanti A., Galbiati E., et al. Bone mineral density and bone metabolism in Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Osteoporos Int 2003, 14:761-767.
62. Tuckerman K., Hofmaste P., Rosen C.J., Turi M. Bone density in ambulatory and immobile children. J Clin Densitom 2002, 5:327-334.
63. Hawker G.A., Ridout R., Harris V.A., et al. Alendronate in the treatment of low bone mass in steroid-treated boys with Duchennes muscular dystrophy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2005, 86:284-288.
64. Crabtree N.J., Roper H., McMurchie H., Shaw N.J. Regional changes in bone area and bone mineral content in boys with Duchenne muscular dystrophy receiving corticosteroid therapy. J Pediatr 2010, 156(3):450-455.
65. Klein G.L., Herndon D.N., Langman C.B., et al. Long-term reduction in bone mass after severe burn injury in children. J Pediatr 1995, 126:252-256.
66. Pludowski P., Lebiedowski M., Olszaniecka M., et al. Idiopathic juvenile osteoporosis-analysis of muscle-bone relationship. Osteoporos Int 2006, 17:1681-1690.
67. Schoenau E., Neu C.M., Mokov E., et al. Influence of puberty on muscle area and cortical bone area of the forearm in boys and girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2000, 85:1095-1098.
68. Crabtree N.J., Kibirige M.S., Fordham J.N., et al. The relationship between lean body mass and bone mineral content in pediatric health and disease. Bone 2004, 35:965-972.
69. Hogler W., Briody J., Woodhead H.J., et al. Importance of lean mass in the interpretation of total body densitometry in children and adolescents. J Pediatr 2003, 143:81-88.
70. Fricke O., Schoenau E. The 'Functional Muscle-Bone Unit': probing the relevance of mechanical signals for bone development in children and adolescents. Growth Horm IGF Res 2007, 17:1-9.
71. Weber D.R., Moore R.H., Leonard M.B., Zemel B.S. Fat and lean BMI reference curves in children and adolescents and their utility in identifying excess adiposity compared with BMI and percentage body fat. Am J Clin Nutr 2013, 98(1):49-56.
72. Khadilkar A.V., Sanwalka N.J., Chiplonkar S.A., et al. Body fat reference percentiles on healthy affluent Indian children and adolescents to screen for adiposity. Int J Obes (Lond) 2013, 37(7):947-953.
73. Taylor A., Konrad P.T., Norman M.E., Harcke H.T. Total body bone mineral density in young children: influence of head bone mineral density. J Bone Miner Res 1997, 12:652-655.
74. Crabtree N.J., Högler W., Cooper M.S., Shaw N.J. Diagnostic evaluation of bone densitometric size adjustment techniques in children with and without low trauma fractures. Osteoporos Int 2013, 24(7):2015-2024.
75. McKay H.A., Petit M.A., Bailey D.A., et al. Analysis of proximal femur DXA scans in growing children: comparisons of different protocols for cross-sectional 8-month and 7-year longitudinal data. J Bone Miner Res 2000, 15:1181-1188.
76. Eichenberger Gilmore J.M., Pauley C.A., Burns T.L., et al. A hip analysis protocol for pediatric bone densitometry: the Iowa Bone Development Study. J Clin Densitom 2010, 13(4):361-369.
77. Lu P.W., Cowell C., Lloyd-Jones S.A., et al. Volumetric bone mineral density in normal subjects, aged 5-27 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1996, 81:1586-1590.
78. Kroger H., Kotaniemi A., Vainio P., Alhava E. Bone densitometry of the spine and femur in children by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. Bone Miner 1992, 17:9-15.
79. Cromer B.A., Binkovitz L., Ziegler J., et al. Reference values for bone mineral density in 12- to 18-year-old girls categorized by weight, race, and age. Pediatr Radiol 2004, 34:787-792.
80. Harcke H.T., Taylor A., Bachrach S., et al. Lateral femoral scan: an alternative method for assessing bone mineral density in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatr Radiol 1998, 28(4):241-246.
81. Henderson R.C., Lark R.K., Newman J.E., et al. Pediatric reference data for dual X-ray absorptiometric measures of normal bone density in the distal femur. Am J Roentgenol 2002, 178:439-443.
82. Mueske N.M., Chan L.S., Wren T.A. Reliability of lateral distal femur dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measures. J Clin Densitom 2013, [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1016/j.jocd.2013.02.010.
83. Henderson R.C., Berglund L.M., May R., et al. The relationship between fractures and DXA measures of BMD in the distal femur of children and adolescents with cerebral palsy or muscular dystrophy. J Bone Miner Res 2010, 25(3):520-526.
84. Haas R.E., Kecskemethy H.H., Lopiccolo M.A., et al. Lower extremity bone mineral density in children with congenital spinal dysfunction. Dev Med Child Neurol 2012, 54(12):1133-1137.
85. Khoury D.J., Szalay E.A. Bone mineral density correlation with fractures in nonambulatory pediatric patients. J Pediatr Orthop 2007, 27(5):562-566.
86. Zemel B.S., Stallings V.A., Leonard M.B., et al. Revised pediatric reference data for the lateral distal femur measured by Hologic Discovery/Delphi dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. J Clin Densitom 2009, 12(2):207-218.
87. Dowthwaite J.N., Flowers P.P., Scerpella T.A. Agreement between pQCT- and DXA-derived indices of bone geometry, density, and theoretical strength in females of varying age, maturity, and physical activity. J Bone Miner Res 2011, 26(6):1349-1357.
88. Kalkwarf H.J., Zemel B.S., Gilsanz V., et al. The Bone Mineral Density in Childhood Study (BMDCS): bone mineral content and density according to age, sex and race. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2007, 92(6):2087-2099.
89. Zemel B.S., Kalkwarf H.J., Gilsanz V., et al. Revised reference curves for bone mineral content and areal bone mineral density according to age and sex for black and non-black children: results of the bone mineral density in childhood study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011, 96(10):3160-3169.
90. Huber A.M., Gaboury I., Cabral D.A., et al. Prevalent vertebral fractures among children initiating glucocorticoid therapy for the treatment of rheumatic disorders. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2010, 62(4):516-526. Canadian Steroid-Associated Osteoporosis in the Pediatric Population (STOPP) Consortium.
91. Halton J., Gaboury I., Grant R., et al. Advanced vertebral fracture among newly diagnosed children with acute lymphoblastic leukemia: results of the Canadian Steroid-Associated Osteoporosis in the Pediatric Population (STOPP) research program. J Bone Miner Res 2009, 24(7):1326-1334. Canadian STOPP Consortium.
92. Rodd C., Lang B., Ramsay T., et al. Incident vertebral fractures among children with rheumatic disorders 12 months after glucocorticoid initiation: a national observational study. Arthritis Care Res (Hoboken) 2012, 64(1):122-131. Canadian Steroid-Associated Osteoporosis in the Pediatric Population (STOPP) Consortium.
93. Rea J.A., Li J., Blake G.M., et al. Visual assessment of vertebral deformity by X-ray absorptiometry: a highly predictive method to exclude vertebral deformity. Osteoporos Int 2000, 11(8):660-668.
94. Grigoryan M., Guermazi A., Roemer F.W., et al. Recognizing and reporting osteoporotic vertebral fractures. Eur Spine J 2003, 12(Suppl 2):S104-S112.
95. Lee C., McLean D., Robinson J. Measurement of effective dose for paediatric scoliotic patients. Radiography 2005, 11:89-97.
96. Makitie O., Doria A.S., Henriques F., et al. Radiographic vertebral morphology: a diagnostic tool in pediatric osteoporosis. J Pediatr 2005, 146:395-401.
97. Crabtree N.J., Chapman S., Hogler W., Shaw N.J. Is vertebral fracture assessment by DXA more useful in a high fracture risk paediatric population than in a low-risk screening population?. Bone Abstr 2013, 2. 10.1530/boneabs.2.P135.
98. Ese A., Summers L., Broadly P., et al. Vertebral morphology assessment in children: can a modified algorithm-based qualitative technique be used reliably?. Bone Abstr 2013, 2. 10.1530/boneabs.2.P109.
99. Ese A., Summers L., Broadly P., et al. Replacing conventional spine radiographs with dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in children with suspected reduction in bone density. Bone Abstr 2013, 2. 10.1530/boneabs.2.P110.
100. Divasta A., Feldman H.A., Gordon C.M. Vertebral fracture assessment in adolescents and young women with anorexia nervosa: a case series. J Clin Densitom 2014, 17(1):207-211.
101. Ellis K.J., Shypailo R.J., Hardin D.S., et al. Z-score prediction model for assessment of bone mineral content in pediatric diseases. J Bone Miner Res 2001, 16:1658-1664.
102. Wren T.A., Liu T., Pitukcheewanont P., Glisanz V. Bone acquisition in healthy children and adolescents: comparisons of DXA and CT measurements. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005, 90:1925-1928.
103. Clark E., Tobias J.H., Ness A.R. Association between bone density and fractures in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatrics 2006, 117:291-297.
104. Gluer C.C., Blake G., Lu Y., et al. Accurate assessment of precision errors: how to measure the reproducibility of bone densitometry techniques. Osteoporos Int 1995, 5:262-270.
105. Baim S., Wilson C.R., Lewiecki E.M., et al. Precision assessment and radiation safety for dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry. J Clin Densitom 2005, 8:371-378.
106. Diagnosis of osteoporosis in men, premenopausal women, and children. J Clin Densitom 2004, 7:17-26. The Writing Group for the ISCD Position Development Conference.
107. Koo W.W.K., Walters J., Bush A.J. Technical considerations of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry-based bone mineral measurements for pediatric studies. J Bone Miner Res 1995, 10:1998-2004.
108. Margulies L., Horlick M., Thornton J.C., et al. Reproducibility of pediatric whole body bone and body composition measures by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry using the GE Lunar Prodigy. J Clin Densitom 2005, 8:298-304.
109. A practical guide to bone densitometry in children 2004, National Osteoporosis Society, National Osteoporosis Society, Camerton, Bath, UK.
110. Bonnick S.L., Johnston C.C., Kleerekoper M., et al. Importance of precision in bone density measurements. J Clin Densitom 2001, 4:105-110.
111. Wahner H.W., Fogelman I. The evaluation of osteoporosis: dual energy x-ray absorptiometry in clinical practice 1994, Martin Dunitz, Cambridge, UK.
112. Abbassi V. Growth and normal puberty. Pediatrics 1998, 102:507-511.
113. Ward L.M. Osteoporosis due to glucocorticoid use in children with chronic illness. Horm Res 2005, 64:209-221.
114. Ward K.A., Adams J.E., Freemont T.J., Mughal M.Z. Can bisphosphonate treatment be stopped in a growing child with skeletal fragility?. Osteoporos Int 2007, 18(8):1137-1140.
115. Rauch F., Munns C., Land C., Glorieux F.H. Pamidronate in children and adolescents with osteogenesis imperfecta: effect of treatment discontinuation. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2006, 91:1268-1274.
116. Wong L, Lu Y, Fan B, et al. 2006 Monitoring time interval for BMD at different skeletal sites in children. Abstract 156, annual ISCD meeting.
117. Fewtrell M.S., Gordon I., Biassoni L., Cole T.J. Dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) of the lumbar spine in a clinical pediatric setting: does the method of size adjustment matter?. Bone 2005, 37:413-419.
118. Carter D.R., Bouxsein M.L., Marcus R. New approaches for interpreting projected bone densitometry data. J Bone Miner Res 1992, 7:137-145.
119. Kroger H., Kotaniemi A., Kroger L., Alhava E. Development of bone mass and bone density of the spine and femoral neck-a prospective study of 65 children and adolescents. Bone Miner 1993, 23:171-182.
120. Katzman D.K., Bachrach L.K., Carter D.R., et al. Clinical and anthropometric correlates of bone mineral acquisition in healthy adolescent girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1991, 73:1332-1339.
121. Prentice A., Parsons T., Cole T. Uncritical use of bone mineral density in absorptiometry may lead to size-related artifacts in the identification of bone mineral determinants. Am J Clin Nutr 1994, 60:837-842.
122. Cole J.H., Scerpella T.A., van der Meulen M.C.H. Fan-beam densitometry of the growing skeleton. J Clin Densitom 2005, 8:57-64.
123. Wren T.A., Liu X., Pitukcheewanont P., Gilsanz V. Bone densitometry in pediatric populations: discrepancies in the diagnosis of osteoporosis by DXA and CT. J Pediatr 2005, 146:776-779.
124. Molgaard C., Thomsen B.L., Prentice A., et al. Whole body bone mineral content in healthy children and adolescents. Arch Dis Child 1997, 76:9-15.
125. Arabi A., Tamim H., Nabulsi M., et al. Sex differences in the effect of body-composition variables on bone mass in healthy children and adolescents. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80:1428-1435.
126. Pitukcheewanont P., Safani D., Church J., Gilsanz V. Bone measures in HIV-1 infected children and adolescents: disparity between quantitative computed tomography and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements. Osteoporos Int 2005, 16:1393-1396.
127. Ahmed S.F., Russell S., Rachid R., et al. Bone mineral content corrected for height or bone area, measured by DXA is not reduced in children with chronic renal disease or in hypoparathyroidism. Pediatr Nephrol 2005, 20:1466-1472.
128. Leonard M.B., Shults J., Elliott D.M., et al. Interpretation of whole body dual energy x-ray absorptiometry measures in children: comparison with peripheral quantitative computed tomography. Bone 2004, 34:1044-1052.
129. Leonard M.B., Shults J., Wilson B.A., et al. Obesity during childhood and adolescence augments bone mass and bone dimensions. Am J Clin Nutr 2004, 80(2):514-523.
130. Zemel B.S., Leonard M.B., Kelly A., et al. Height adjustment in assessing dual energy X-ray absorptiometry measurements of bone mass and density in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010, 95(3):1265-1273.
131. Polgreen L.E., Thomas W., Fung E., et al. Low bone mineral content and challenges in interpretation of dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in children with mucopolysaccharidosis types I, II, and VI. J Clin Densitom 2014, 17(1):200-206.
132. Pludowski P., Lebiedowski M., Lorenc R.S. Evaluation of the possibility to assess bone age on the basis of DXA derived hand scans-preliminary results. Osteoporos Int 2004, 15:317-322.
133. Pludowski P., Lebiedowski M., Lorenc R.S. Evaluation of practical use of bone age assessments based on DXA-derived hand scans in diagnosis of skeletal status in healthy and diseased children. J Clin Densitom 2005, 8:48-56.
134. Greulich W.W., Pyle S.I. Radiographic atlas of skeletal development of the hand wrist 1950, Stanford University Press, Redwood City, CA.
135. Tanner J., Healy M., Goldstein H., Cameron N. Assessment of skeletal maturity and prediction of adult height (TW3) method 2001, WB Saunders, London, UK.
136. Glastre C., Braillon P., David L., et al. Measurement of bone mineral content of the lumbar spine by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in normal children: correlations with growth parameters. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990, 70:1330-1333.
137. Zemel B., Kalkwarf H., Leonard M., et al. Effects of skeletal and sexual maturation on trabecular and cortical density of the peripheral skeleton. J Bone Miner Res 2005, 20:S59.
138. Mora S., Boechat M.I., Peitka E., et al. Skeletal age determinations in children of European and African descent: applicability of the Greulich and Pyle standards. Pediatr Res 2001, 50:624-628.
139. Zemel B., Mahboubi S., Kalkwarf H., et al. Bone age deviates from chronological age in contemporary US children. J Bone Miner Res 2006, 21:S21.
140. Beunen G.P., Malina R.M., Lefevre J.A., et al. Adiposity and biological maturity in girls 6-16 years of age. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 1994, 18:542-546.
141. Semeao E.J., Jawad A.F., Stouffer N.O., et al. Risk factors for low bone mineral density in children and young adults with Crohn's disease. J Pediatr 1999, 135:593-600.
142. Sabatier J.-P., Guaydier-Souquieres G., Laroche D., et al. Bone mineral acquisition during adolescence and early adulthood: a study in 574 healthy females 10-24 years of age. Osteoporos Int 1996, 6:141-148.
143. Gilsanz V., Skaggs D.L., Kovanlakaya A., et al. Differential effect of race on the axial and appendicular skeletons of children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998, 83:1420-1427.
144. Molgaard C., Thomsen B.L., Michaelsen K.F. Influence of weight, age and puberty on bone size and bone mineral content in healthy children and adolescents. Acta Paediatr 1998, 87:494-499.
145. Desmangles J.C., Lappe J.M., Lipaczewski G., Haynatski G. Accuracy of pubertal Tanner staging self-reporting. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2006, 19:213-221.
146. Duke P.M., Litt I.F., Gross R.T. Adolescents' self assessment of sexual maturation. Pediatrics 1980, 66:918-920.
147. Morris N.M., Udry J.R. Validation of a self-administered instrument to assess stage of adolescent development. J Youth Adolesc 1980, 9:271-280.
148. Saland J.M., Goode M.L., Haas D.L., et al. The prevalence of osteopenia in pediatric renal allograft recipients varies with the method of analysis. Am J Transplant 2001, 1(3):243-250.
149. Gordon C.M., Gordon L.B., Snyder B.D., et al. Hutchinson-Gilford progeria is a skeletal dysplasia. J Bone Miner Res 2011, 26(7):1670-1679.
150. Young D., Hopper J.L., Macinnis R.J., et al. Changes in body composition as determinants of longitudinal changes in bone mineral measures in 8 to 26 years-old-female twins. Osteoporos Int 2001, 12:506-515.
151. Ogle G.D., Allen J.R., Humphries I.R., et al. Body-composition assessment by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in subjects aged 4-26 y. Am J Clin Nutr 1995, 61:746-753.
152. Ferrati J.L., Cappozza R.F., Cointry G.R., et al. Gender-related differences in the relationship between densitometric values of whole-body bone mineral content and lean body mass in humans between 2 and 87 years of age. Bone 1998, 22:683-690.
153. Petit M.A., Beck T.J., Kontulainen S.A. Examining the developing bone: what do we measure and how do we do it?. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2005, 5:213-224.
154. Pludowski P., Karczmarewicz E., Socha J., et al. Skeletal and muscular status in GFD treated clinical and newly diagnosed atypical celiac disease-preliminary data. J Clin Densitom 2007, 10(1):76-85.
155. Horlick M., Wang J., Pierson R.N., Thornton J.C. Prediction models for evaluation of total-body bone mass with dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry among children and adolescents. Pediatrics 2004, 114:e339-e445.
156. Skaggs D.L., Loro M.L., Pitukcheewanont P., et al. Increased body weight and decreased radial cross-sectional dimensions in girls with forearm fractures. J Bone Miner Res 2001, 16:1337-1342.
157. Kaste S.C., Tong X., Hendrick J.M., et al. QCT versus DXA in 320 survivors of childhood cancer: association of BMD with fracture history. Pediatr Blood Cancer 2006, 47:936-943.
158. Fielding K.T., Nix D.A., Bachrach L.K. Comparison of calcaneus ultrasound and dual x-ray absorptiometry in children at risk for osteopenia. J Clin Densitom 2003, 6:7-15.
159. Zemel B.S., Petit M. Evaluation. Bone Densitometry in Growing Patients 2007, 117. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. A.E. Sawyer, L.K. Bachrach, E.B. Fung (Eds.).
160. Hastie T., Tibshirani R. Generalized additive models 1990, Chapman and Hall, New York, NY.
161. Bachrach L.K., Hastie T., Wang M.-C., et al. Bone mineral acquisition in healthy Asian, Hispanic, Black and Caucasian youth: a longitudinal study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1999, 84:4702-4712.
162. Cole T.J., Green P.J. Smoothing reference centile curves: the LMS method and penalized likelihood. Stat Med 1992, 11:1305-1319.
163. Fan B., Shepherd J.A., Levine M.A., et al. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Whole-Body Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry Reference Data for GE Lunar Systems. J Clin Densitom 2013, [Epub ahead of print]. 10.1016/j.jocd.2013.08.019.
164. Shepherd J.A., Fan B., Lu Y., et al. A multinational study to develop universal standardization of whole-body bone density and composition using GE Healthcare Lunar and Hologic DXA systems. J Bone Miner Res 2012, 27(10):2208-2216.
165. Crabtree N.J., Machin M., Bebbington N.A., et al. The Amalgamated Paediatric Bone Density Study (the ALPHABET Study): the collation and generation of UK based reference data for paediatric bone densitometry. Bone Abstr 2013, 2. 10.1530/boneabs.2.OC1.
166. Genant H.K., Grampp S., Gluer C.C., et al. Universal standardization for dual x-ray absorptiometry: patient and phantom cross-calibration results. J Bone Miner Res 1994, 9:1503-1510.
167. Leonard M.B., Propert K.J., Zemel B.S., et al. Discrepancies in pediatric bone mineral density reference data: potential for misdiagnosis of osteopenia. J Pediatr 1999, 135:182-188.
168. Leonard M.B., Feldman H.I., Zemel B.S., et al. Evaluation of low density spine software for the assessment of bone mineral density in children. J Bone Miner Res 1998, 13:1687-1690.
169. Shypailo R.J., Ellis K.J. Bone assessment in children: comparison of fan-beam DXA analysis. J Clin Densitom 2005, 8(4):445-453.
170. Kocks J., Ward K.A., Mughal M.Z., et al. Z-score comparability of bone mineral density reference databases for children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2010, 95:4652-4659.
171. Binkley T.L., Specker B.L., Wittig T.A. Centile curves for bone density measurements in healthy males and females ages 5-22 yr. J Clin Densitom 2002, 5:343-353.
172. Sala A., Webber C.E., Morrison J., et al. Whole-body bone mineral content, lean body mass, and fat mass as measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in a population of healthy Canadian children and adolescents. Can Assoc Radiol J 2007, 58(1):46-52.
173. Tan L.J., Lei S.F., Chen X.D., et al. Establishment of peak bone mineral density in Southern Chinese males and its comparisons with other males from different regions of China. J Bone Miner Metab 2007, 25:114-121.
174. Kelly T.L., Wilson K.E., Heymsfield S.B. Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition reference values from NHANES. PLoS One 2009, 4(9):e7038.
175. Zhou W., Langsetmo L., Berger C., et al. Normative bone mineral density z-scores for Canadians aged 16 to 24 years: the Canadian Multicenter Osteoporosis Study. J Clin Densitom 2010, 13(3):267-276. CaMos Research Group.
176. Baxter-Jones A.D., Burrows M., Bachrach L.K., et al. International longitudinal pediatric reference standards for bone mineral content. Bone 2010, 46(1):208-216.
177. Kalkwarf H.J., Zemel B.S., Yolton K., Heubi J.E. Bone mineral content and density of the lumbar spine of infants and toddlers: influence of age, sex, race, growth, and human milk feeding. J Bone Miner Res 2013, 28(1):206-212.
178. Khadilkar A.V., Sanwalka N.J., Chiplonkar S.A., et al. Normative data and percentile curves for dual energy X-ray absorptiometry in healthy Indian girls and boys aged 5-17 years. Bone 2011, 48(4):810-819.
179. Xu H., Chen J.X., Gong J., et al. Normal reference for bone density in healthy Chinese children. J Clin Densitom 2007, 10(3):266-275.
180. Marwaha R.K., Tandon N., Reddy D.H., et al. Peripheral bone mineral density and its predictors in healthy school girls from two different socioeconomic groups in Delhi. Osteoporos Int 2007, 18(3):375-383.
181. Min J.Y., Min K.B., Paek D., et al. Age curves of bone mineral density at the distal radius and calcaneus in Koreans. J Bone Miner Metab 2010, 28(1):94-100.
182. Zanchetta J.R., Plotkin H., Alvarez Filguerira M.L. Bone mass in children: normative values for the 2-20 year old population. Bone 1995, 16:393S-399S.
183. Cheng J.C.Y., Leung S.S.S.F., Lee W.T.K., et al. Determinants of axial and peripheral bone mass in Chinese adolescents. Arch Dis Child 1998, 78:524-530.
184. Hasanoglu A., Tumer L., Ezgu F.S. Vertebra and femur bone mineral density values in Turkish children. Turk J Pediatr 2004, 46:298-302.
185. Fung E.B., Bachrach L.K., Briody J.N., Cowell C.T. Reporting DXA results. Bone Densitometry in Growing Patients 2007, 129-130. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. A.E. Sawyer, L.K. Bachrach, E.B. Fung (Eds.).