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Volumn 123, Issue 6, 2014, Pages 1958-1994

The Loyal Opposition

(1)  Gerken, Heather K a  

a NONE

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EID: 84898634989     PISSN: 00440094     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article
Times cited : (31)

References (179)
  • 1
    • 0039921597 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Opposition in the British Political System
    • Nevil Johnson, Opposition in the British Political System, 32 GOV'T & OPPOSITION 487, 489 & n.4 (1997).
    • (1997) GOV'T & OPPOSITION , vol.32 , Issue.4 , pp. 487-489
    • Johnson, N.1
  • 2
    • 77949870980 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an overview of the idea's development, see generally id. For broad-gauged disquisitions on the topic, see IAN SHAPIRO, DEMOCRATIC JUSTICE 39-45 (1999)
    • (1999) DEMOCRATIC JUSTICE , pp. 39-45
    • Ian, S.1
  • 3
    • 77949286409 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Government in Opposition
    • David Fontana, Government in Opposition, 119 YALE L.J. 548 (2009);
    • (2009) YALE L.J , vol.119 , pp. 548
    • Fontana, D.1
  • 4
    • 84898617470 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Jeremy Waldron, The Principle of Loyal Opposition (N.Y.U. Sch. of Law, Pub. Law & Legal Theory Research Paper Series, Working Paper No. 12-22, 2011), http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2045647.
    • (2011) The Principle of Loyal Opposition
    • Waldron, J.1
  • 6
    • 84898649977 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • We do, of course, have supermajority rules and the like. But those provisions cast minorities either in the role of junior partners to the decision or as perpetual veto gates. What these rules do not do is allow dissenters to put their own ideas into place. As I discuss infra Section III.A, federalism does just that.
  • 7
    • 84898632408 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • And the Fourteenth Amendment, of course. In order to keep the focus on the right to vote, I use the Fifteenth Amendment as my reference point.
  • 8
    • 84898617471 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Two exceptions to the literature's failure to regard federalism as a form of loyal opposition are David Fontana, who briefly discusses federalism in his comparative overview of "government in opposition," Fontana, supra note 2, at 560, and Jeremy Waldron, who argues that the separation of powers and federalism, among other institutions, foster a "loyal opposition" in the United States, Waldron, supra note 2, at 22-26.
  • 9
    • 84876235807 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Federalis(m) Society
    • note
    • See, e.g., Heather K. Gerken, The Federalis(m) Society, 36 HARV. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y 941 (2013) [hereinafter Gerken, The Federalis(m) Society]
    • (2013) HARV. J.L. & PUB. POL'Y , vol.36 , pp. 941
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 10
    • 84876987405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Exit, Voice, and Disloyalty
    • Heather K. Gerken, Lecture, Exit, Voice, and Disloyalty, 62 DUKE L.J. 1349 (2013)
    • (2013) DUKE L.J , vol.62 , pp. 1349
    • Gerken, H.K.1    Lecture2
  • 11
    • 84878306925 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Our Federalism(s)
    • Heather K. Gerken, Our Federalism(s), 53 WM. & MARY L. REV. 1549 (2012)
    • (2012) WM. & MARY L. REV , vol.53 , pp. 1549
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 12
    • 79851503317 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court 2009 Term-Foreword: Federalism All the Way Down
    • note
    • Heather K. Gerken, The Supreme Court 2009 Term-Foreword: Federalism All the Way Down, 124 HARV. L. REV. 4, 44-73 (2010) [hereinafter Gerken, Foreword]
    • (2010) HARV. L. REV , vol.124 , Issue.4 , pp. 44-73
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 13
    • 70349257377 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Uncooperative Federalism
    • Jessica Bulman-Pozen & Heather K. Gerken, Uncooperative Federalism, 118 YALE L.J. 1256 (2009)
    • (2009) YALE L.J , vol.118 , pp. 1256
    • Bulman-Pozen, J.1    Gerken, H.K.2
  • 14
    • 33749177273 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Of Sovereigns and Servants
    • note
    • Heather K. Gerken, Of Sovereigns and Servants, 115 YALE L.J. 2633 (2006) [hereinafter Gerken, Of Sovereigns and Servants]
    • (2006) YALE L.J , vol.115 , pp. 2633
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 15
    • 14544290920 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Second-Order Diversity
    • note
    • Heather K. Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, 118 HARV. L. REV. 1099 (2005) [hereinafter Gerken, Second-Order Diversity]
    • (2005) HARV. L. REV , vol.118 , pp. 1099
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 16
    • 33645991780 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Dissenting by Deciding
    • note
    • Heather K. Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding, 57 STAN. L. REV. 1745 (2005) [hereinafter Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding].
    • (2005) STAN. L. REV , vol.57 , pp. 1745
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 17
    • 84898632746 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism as the New Nationalism: An Overview
    • Heather K. Gerken, Federalism as the New Nationalism: An Overview, 123 YALE L.J. 1889 (2014).
    • (2014) YALE L.J , vol.123 , pp. 1889
    • Gerken, H.K.1
  • 18
    • 84890845418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a full description, see Gerken, Foreword, supra note 7.
    • Foreword
    • Gerken1
  • 19
    • 84898617469 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For ease of exposition, then, I will use several terms interchangeably in describing these institutional arrangements: federalism-all-the-way-down, federalism and localism, decentralization, and "Our Federalism."
  • 22
    • 84898649976 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Perhaps the most important divide between whites, on the one hand, and African Americans and Latinos, on the other, is their perception of how much racial discrimination exists.
  • 23
    • 84898668542 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Little Change in Views of Islam and Violence
    • note
    • See After Boston, Little Change in Views of Islam and Violence, PEW RES. CENTER 4 (May 7, 2013), http://www.people-press.org/files/legacy-pdf/5-7-13%20Islam%20Release.pdf (38% of Hispanics believe there is "a lot" of discrimination against Hispanics compared to 20% of whites)
    • (2013) PEW RES. CENTER , vol.4
    • Boston, A.1
  • 24
    • 84898649975 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For African Americans, Discrimination Is Not Dead
    • note
    • Carroll Doherty, For African Americans, Discrimination Is Not Dead, PEW RES. CENTER (June 28, 2013), http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/06/28/for-african-americans-discrimination-is-not-dead (46% of African American respondents felt there is "a lot" of discrimination against African Americans, compared to 16% of whites). But these groups also divide along a variety of policy dimensions.
    • (2013) PEW RES. CENTER
    • Doherty, C.1
  • 25
    • 84898617468 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Black, White and Latino Political Attitudes, NEWS21, http://www.thenewvoters.com/database/race (last visited Dec. 4, 2013) (45% of whites favor universal healthcare whereas roughly 65% of African Americans and Hispanics do; 48% of whites favor smaller government whereas 14% and 19%, respectively, of African Americans and Hispanics do).
    • (2013) White and Latino Political Attitudes
    • Black1
  • 26
    • 84898668543 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke, 438 U.S. 265, 315 (1978) (opinion of Powell, J.).
    • (1978)
  • 27
    • 70349823049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Elsewhere I have called this notion of statistical mirroring "first-order diversity." Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, supra note 7, at 1106-08.
    • Second-Order Diversity , pp. 1106-1108
    • Gerken1
  • 29
    • 84890845418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • For examples, see Gerken, Foreword, supra note 7, at 49-50.
    • Foreword , pp. 49-50
    • Gerken1
  • 30
    • 84898668544 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Johnson v. De Grandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1017 (1994) (discussing the notion of proportionality in the context of voting power).
    • (1994)
  • 31
    • 84898668539 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • In the context of voting, the courts have often looked to what are commonly referred to as the "Senate factors" (because they are derived from a 1982 Senate report accompanying the renewal of the Voting Rights Act). These include racially polarized voting, the use of voting rules that burden minority voters, the exclusion of racial minorities from the slating process, overt racial appeals during campaigns, and the like.
  • 32
    • 84898617467 scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Thornburg v. Gingles, 478 U.S. 30, 44-45 (1986).
    • (1986)
  • 33
    • 84898668540 scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Whitcomb v. Chavis, 403 U.S. 124, 153-55 (1971) (rejecting the notion that a minority's failure to win even a proportional share of seats is proof of discrimination lest the evidence of discrimination amount to little more than a "euphemism for political defeat at the polls").
    • (1971)
  • 35
    • 84898614325 scopus 로고
    • Babbitt, Espy, Peña Chosen
    • note
    • Baird, Babbitt, Espy, Peña Chosen, WASH. POST, Dec. 24, 1992, at A1.
    • (1992) WASH. POST
    • Baird1
  • 36
    • 0001778197 scopus 로고
    • The Politics of Recognition
    • note
    • Political theorists who write about "the politics of recognition," for instance, have insisted on the presence of racial minorities on decisionmaking bodies in rough proportion to their share of the population. For an excellent overview of the theory, see generally Charles Taylor, The Politics of Recognition, in MULTICULTURALISM: EXAMINING THE POLITICS OF RECOGNITION 25 (Amy Gutmann ed., 1994).
    • (1994) MULTICULTURALISM: EXAMINING the POLITICS of RECOGNITION , pp. 25
    • Taylor, C.1
  • 37
    • 3342997150 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Similarly, academics like Cass Sunstein have insisted on the presence of at least one dissenter on every decisionmaking body in explaining "why societies need dissent." CASS R. SUNSTEIN, WHY SOCIETIES NEED DISSENT 164-65 (2003).
    • (2003) WHY SOCIETIES NEED DISSENT , pp. 164-165
    • Cass, R.S.1
  • 38
    • 84898644168 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The term was first used simply to acknowledge that a party in opposition could legitimately be termed loyal. Johnson, supra note 1, at 489 & n.4.
    • , Issue.4 , pp. 489
    • Johnson1
  • 39
    • 84898668541 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Over time it evolved into an institutionalized system that grants the leader of the opposition party a cabinet position and creates a shadow cabinet.
  • 40
    • 84898632404 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Id. at 492.
  • 45
    • 84898632405 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See, e.g., Garcetti v. Ceballos, 547 U.S. 410 (2006).
    • (2006)
  • 46
  • 47
    • 84898649974 scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Nat'l Socialist Party of Am. v. Vill. of Skokie, 432 U.S. 43 (1977) (per curiam).
    • (1977)
  • 48
    • 84898617464 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See Snyder v. Phelps, 131 S. Ct. 1207 (2011).
    • (2011)
  • 49
    • 84898668536 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The formulation was inspired by a conversation with Zephyr Teachout. Waldron poses the issue sharply: "[I]t is hard to avoid the impression that rights of free expression are just freedoms to let our words go out into the air, where by and large and for most of us they dissipate without any discernable effect on the government that is being conducted by others in our name...." Waldron, supra note 2, at 6.
    • Waldron1
  • 50
    • 84898617465 scopus 로고
    • note
    • The touchstone for this argument is JOHN STUART MILL, ON LIBERTY 37-40 (The Legal Classics Library 1992) (1859).
    • (1859)
  • 53
    • 11544354937 scopus 로고
    • In Defense of the Search for Truth as a First Amendment Justification
    • William P. Marshall, In Defense of the Search for Truth as a First Amendment Justification, 30 GA. L. REV. 1 (1995)
    • (1995) GA. L. REV , vol.30 , pp. 1
    • Marshall, W.P.1
  • 54
    • 33645997912 scopus 로고
    • A Rationale from J. S. Mill for the Free Speech Clause
    • R. George Wright, A Rationale from J. S. Mill for the Free Speech Clause, 1985 SUP. CT. REV. 149.
    • (1985) SUP. CT. REV , pp. 149
    • George, W.R.1
  • 55
    • 84898668537 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For the early and seminal example, see MILL, supra note 28, at 37-40.
    • Mill1
  • 58
    • 0004188294 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Contemporary scholars of many stripes have also written in this vein. See, e.g., Owen M. Fiss, THE IRONY OF FREE SPEECH (1996)
    • (1996) THE IRONY of FREE SPEECH
    • Fiss, O.M.1
  • 60
    • 8344252536 scopus 로고
    • The First Amendment and Political Speech: An Inquiry into the Substance and Limits of Principle
    • Lillian R. BeVier, The First Amendment and Political Speech: An Inquiry into the Substance and Limits of Principle, 30 STAN. L. REV. 299, 300-01 (1978)
    • (1978) STAN. L. REV , vol.30 , pp. 299
    • Bevier, L.R.1
  • 61
    • 0003374013 scopus 로고
    • Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems
    • Robert H. Bork, Neutral Principles and Some First Amendment Problems, 47 IND. L.J. 1, 27-28 (1971)
    • (1971) IND. L.J , vol.47 , Issue.1 , pp. 27-28
    • Bork, R.H.1
  • 62
    • 0040311462 scopus 로고
    • Free Speech and Social Structure
    • Owen M. Fiss, Free Speech and Social Structure, 71 IOWA L. REV. 1405, 1416 (1986)
    • (1986) IOWA L. REV , vol.71 , pp. 1405
    • Fiss, O.M.1
  • 63
    • 84928460367 scopus 로고
    • Why the State?
    • note
    • Owen M. Fiss, Why the State?, 100 HARV. L. REV. 781, 788 (1987) [hereinafter Fiss, Why the State?]
    • (1987) HARV. L. REV , vol.100 , pp. 781
    • Fiss, O.M.1
  • 64
    • 0347700929 scopus 로고
    • Free Speech Now
    • Cass R. Sunstein, Free Speech Now, 59 U. CHI. L. REV. 255, 316 (1992).
    • (1992) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.59 , pp. 255
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 70
    • 0010158702 scopus 로고
    • Scope of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech
    • C. Edwin Baker, Scope of the First Amendment Freedom of Speech, 25 UCLA L. REV. 964, 990-96 (1978)
    • (1978) UCLA L. REV , vol.25 , pp. 964
    • Edwin B., C.1
  • 71
    • 84935459594 scopus 로고
    • The New First Amendment Jurisprudence: A Threat to Liberty
    • Charles Fried, The New First Amendment Jurisprudence: A Threat to Liberty, 59 U. CHI. L. REV. 225, 232-37 (1992).
    • (1992) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.59 , pp. 225
    • Fried, C.1
  • 73
    • 20744442842 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Towards an Institutional First Amendment
    • Frederick Schauer, Towards an Institutional First Amendment, 89 MINN L. REV. 1256 (2005).
    • (2005) MINN L. REV , vol.89 , pp. 1256
    • Schauer, F.1
  • 74
    • 34249294044 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Displacing Dissent: The Role of "Place" in First Amendment Jurisprudence
    • See, e.g., Thomas P. Crocker, Displacing Dissent: The Role of "Place" in First Amendment Jurisprudence, 75 FORDHAM L. REV. 2587 (2007).
    • (2007) FORDHAM L. REV , vol.75 , pp. 2587
    • Crocker, T.P.1
  • 76
    • 84898607394 scopus 로고
    • Confessions of a Horizontalist: A Dialogue on the First Amendment
    • Larry W. Yackle, Confessions of a Horizontalist: A Dialogue on the First Amendment, 27 U. KAN. L. REV. 541 (1979).
    • (1979) U. KAN. L. REV , vol.27 , pp. 541
    • Yackle, L.W.1
  • 77
    • 84898632403 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The vote obviously matters to dissenters as well and, unsurprisingly, the diversity model dominates here as well, albeit in a less explicit form. We typically assume that dissenters should be represented in rough proportion to their share of the population. Here again, it's a convenient notion for members of the majority. To be sure, they will be forced to deal with challengers. But dissenters can only succeed through argument; the majority always retains its ability to outvote them.
  • 78
  • 81
    • 84898617462 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • see also id. at 226-28, 288-99
  • 83
    • 84898617463 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The validity of this approach was famously litigated in Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003).
    • (2003)
  • 84
    • 84898668532 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • A point made by the Grutter dissenters. Id. at 378-87 (Rehnquist, C.J., dissenting).
  • 86
    • 77955749329 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a thoughtful assessment of the relationship between safe spaces, opinion formation, and politics, see Cass R. Sunstein, GOING TO EXTREMES 151-54 (2009).
    • (2009) GOING to EXTREMES , pp. 151-154
    • Sunstein, C.R.1
  • 88
    • 84898668533 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • At least if they've been reading their Barron or their Fiss or their Guinier.
  • 89
    • 0005434963 scopus 로고
    • Access to the Press-A New First Amendment Right
    • See generally Jerome A. Barron, Access to the Press-A New First Amendment Right, 80 HARV. L. REV. 1641 (1967)
    • (1967) HARV. L. REV , vol.80 , pp. 1641
    • Barron, J.A.1
  • 91
    • 84898632402 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • GUINIER, supra note 42
    • Guinier1
  • 92
    • 0000521197 scopus 로고
    • The Triumph of Tokenism: The Voting Rights Act and the Theory of Black Electoral Success
    • Lani Guinier, The Triumph of Tokenism: The Voting Rights Act and the Theory of Black Electoral Success, 89 MICH. L. REV. 1077 (1991).
    • (1991) MICH. L. REV , vol.89 , pp. 1077
    • Guinier, L.1
  • 93
    • 84898668534 scopus 로고
    • Almost Perfect
    • note
    • SHEL SILVERSTEIN, Almost Perfect, in A LIGHT IN THE ATTIC (1981) ("'Almost perfect... but not quite' / Those were the words of Mary Hume / At her seventh birthday party, / Looking 'round the ribboned room. / 'This tablecloth is pink and white- / Almost perfect... but not quite.'").
    • (1981) A LIGHT IN the ATTIC
    • Shel, S.1
  • 94
    • 31544450965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Welcome to the Dark Side: Liberals Rediscover Federalism in the Wake of the War on Terror
    • note
    • In addition to my own work, supra note 7, this includes Ernie Young's work describing the role states play in empowering the party out of power at the national level, Ernest A. Young, Welcome to the Dark Side: Liberals Rediscover Federalism in the Wake of the War on Terror, 69 BROOK. L. REV. 1277, 1285-87 (2004)
    • (2004) BROOK. L. REV , vol.69 , pp. 1277
    • Young, E.A.1
  • 95
    • 84928842625 scopus 로고
    • The Guarantee Clause and State Autonomy: Federalism for a Third Century
    • see also Deborah Jones Merritt, The Guarantee Clause and State Autonomy: Federalism for a Third Century, 88 COLUM. L. REV. 1, 7 (1988)
    • (1988) COLUM. L. REV , vol.88 , pp. 1
    • Merritt, D.J.1
  • 96
    • 84928440489 scopus 로고
    • Some New World Lessons for the Old World
    • note
    • Akhil Amar's discussion of the role states play in monitoring federal officials and training the loyal opposition, Akhil Reed Amar, Some New World Lessons for the Old World, 58 U. CHI. L. REV. 483, 499-505 (1991)
    • (1991) U. CHI. L. REV , vol.58 , pp. 483
    • Amar, A.R.1
  • 97
    • 0010103733 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Federalism and the Double Standard of Judicial Review
    • see also Lynn A. Baker & Ernest A. Young, Federalism and the Double Standard of Judicial Review, 51 DUKE L.J. 75, 137-38 (2001)
    • (2001) DUKE L.J , vol.51 , pp. 75
    • Baker, L.A.1    Young, E.A.2
  • 98
    • 79851494832 scopus 로고
    • From Sovereignty to Process: The Jurisprudence of Federalism After Garcia
    • note
    • Andrzej Rapaczynski's depiction of local power as a "counterbalance" to federal lock-up, Andrzej Rapaczynski, From Sovereignty to Process: The Jurisprudence of Federalism After Garcia, 1985 SUP. CT. REV. 341, 386-88
    • (1985) SUP. CT. REV , pp. 341
    • Rapaczynski, A.1
  • 99
    • 33646406862 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Law's Migration: American Exceptionalism, Silent Dialogues, and Federalism's Multiple Ports of Entry
    • note
    • Judith Resnik's work on localism's role in promoting international rights, Judith Resnik, Law's Migration: American Exceptionalism, Silent Dialogues, and Federalism's Multiple Ports of Entry, 115 YALE. L.J. 1564 (2006)
    • (2006) YALE. L.J , vol.115 , pp. 1564
    • Resnik, J.1
  • 100
    • 38849153183 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Significance of the Local in Immigration Regulation
    • note
    • Cristina Rodríguez's work on the role federalism plays in mediating immigration battles, Cristina Rodríguez, The Significance of the Local in Immigration Regulation, 106 MICH. L. REV. 567 (2008)
    • (2008) MICH. L. REV , vol.106 , pp. 567
    • Rodríguez, C.1
  • 101
    • 84889631706 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Partisan Federalism
    • note
    • Jessica Bulman-Pozen's work on the role that states play in facilitating partisan competition, Jessica Bulman-Pozen, Partisan Federalism, 127 HARV. L. REV. 1077 (2014)
    • (2014) HARV. L. REV , vol.127 , pp. 1077
    • Bulman-Pozen, J.1
  • 102
    • 33749189377 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Can Strong Mayors Empower Weak Cities? On the Power of Local Executives in a Federal System
    • note
    • the work of Richard Schragger on the role of the local in the same-sex marriage debate, Richard C. Schragger, Can Strong Mayors Empower Weak Cities? On the Power of Local Executives in a Federal System, 115 YALE L.J. 2542, 2573 (2006).
    • (2006) YALE L.J , vol.115 , pp. 2542
    • Schragger, R.C.1
  • 103
    • 84898649973 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For those who immediately want to object on the grounds that something can't be both a means of achieving something and a measure of achievement, please just hang on until Section III.C.
  • 104
    • 84898617810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an in-depth analysis of this argument, see Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding, supra note 7, at 1759-74.
    • Dissenting By Deciding , pp. 1759-1774
    • Gerken1
  • 105
    • 77953559765 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Internet Nondiscrimination Principles: Commercial Ethics for Carriers and Search Engines
    • note
    • One might be especially worried given that search engines function by pushing people to already popular sites. As one academic observed, "obscurity hurts." Frank Pasquale, Internet Nondiscrimination Principles: Commercial Ethics for Carriers and Search Engines, 2008 U. CHI. LEGAL F. 263, 264-65.
    • (2008) U. CHI. LEGAL F , vol.263 , pp. 264-265
    • Pasquale, F.1
  • 106
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    • After Filibuster, a Star Rises in Texas
    • note
    • Luisita Lopez Torregrosa, After Filibuster, a Star Rises in Texas, N.Y. TIMES, July 23, 2013, http://www.nytimes.com/2013/07/24/us/24iht-letter24.html.
    • (2013) N.Y. TIMES
    • Torregrosa, L.L.1
  • 107
    • 15344341851 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Submajority Rules: Forcing Accountability upon Majorities
    • note
    • Agenda setting may be the most powerful tool minorities wield in a majoritarian system. See Adrian Vermeule, Submajority Rules: Forcing Accountability upon Majorities, 13 J. POL. PHIL. 74, 80-83 (2005).
    • (2005) J. POL. PHIL , vol.13 , pp. 74
    • Vermeule, A.1
  • 108
    • 84898617810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a fuller account, see Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding, supra note 7, at 1763-65.
    • Dissenting By Deciding , pp. 1763-1765
    • Gerken1
  • 109
    • 84898668531 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This idea may even undergird Romer v. Evans, 517 U.S. 620 (1996), the first gay rights victory at the Supreme Court.
    • (1996)
  • 110
    • 0347169652 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Dynamics of Democracy: Travel, Premature Predation, and the Components of Political Identity
    • See, e.g., Nicholas S. Zeppos, The Dynamics of Democracy: Travel, Premature Predation, and the Components of Political Identity, 50 VAND. L. REV. 445, 452-55 (1997).
    • (1997) VAND. L. REV , vol.50 , pp. 445
    • Zeppos, N.S.1
  • 111
    • 84898649970 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a description of these networks, see Bulman-Pozen, supra note 47, at 1085-87
    • Bulman-Pozen1
  • 112
    • 84898649971 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Resnik, supra note 47
    • Resnik1
  • 114
    • 84898649972 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For an exploration of these ideas, see Bulman-Pozen & Gerken, supra note 7, at 1285-87
    • Bulman-Pozen1    Gerken2
  • 117
    • 34547251070 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Cooperative Localism: Federal-Local Collaboration in an Era of State Sovereignty
    • Nestor M. Davidson, Cooperative Localism: Federal-Local Collaboration in an Era of State Sovereignty, 93 VA. L. REV. 959 (2007).
    • (2007) VA. L. REV , vol.93 , pp. 959
    • Davidson, N.M.1
  • 118
    • 50449109113 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance
    • note
    • See, e.g., Jerry L. Mashaw, Accountability and Institutional Design: Some Thoughts on the Grammar of Governance, in PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY: DESIGNS, DILEMMAS AND EXPERIENCES 115, 142-44 (Michael W. Dowdle ed., 2006)
    • (2006) PUBLIC ACCOUNTABILITY: DESIGNS, DILEMMAS and EXPERIENCES , vol.115 , pp. 142-144
    • Mashaw, J.L.1
  • 119
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    • Street-Level Political Controls over Federal Bureaucracy
    • John T. Scholz et al., Street-Level Political Controls over Federal Bureaucracy, 85 AM. POL. SCI. REV. 829 (1991).
    • (1991) AM. POL. SCI. REV , vol.85 , pp. 829
    • Scholz, J.T.1
  • 121
    • 84898668529 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For additional analysis, see Bulman-Pozen & Gerken, supra note 7, at 1268-70, 1288-89;
    • Bulman-Pozen1    Gerken2
  • 125
    • 84898668525 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gerken, supra note 8.
    • Gerken1
  • 126
  • 127
    • 84898655218 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Negotiating Conflict Through Federalism: Institutional and Popular Perspectives
    • Cristina M. Rodríguez, Negotiating Conflict Through Federalism: Institutional and Popular Perspectives, 123 YALE L.J. 2094 (2014).
    • (2014) YALE L.J , vol.123 , pp. 2094
    • Rodríguez, C.M.1
  • 128
    • 64649086993 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • According to the Yale Book of Quotations, this is S.G. Tallenytyre's paraphrase of Voltaire, which Bartlett's Familiar Quotations incorrectly attributes to one of Voltaire's letters. Fred R. Shapiro, THE YALE BOOK OF QUOTATIONS 744 (2006).
    • (2006) THE YALE BOOK of QUOTATIONS , pp. 744
    • Shapiro, F.R.1
  • 129
    • 84898632401 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • The legendary Fred Shapiro insists that Wilde could not have said this, which ought to be sufficient authority for anyone. See E-mail from Fred R. Shapiro to author (Nov. 17, 2013) (on file with author).
  • 130
    • 84898668526 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • This appears to be a corruption of a letter from St. Augustine: "With love for mankind and hatred of sins." Shapiro, supra note 66, at 34.
    • Shapiro1
  • 131
    • 84898617810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For further exploration of this idea, see Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding, supra note 7, at 1776-78.
    • Dissenting By Deciding , pp. 1776-1778
    • Gerken1
  • 133
    • 84898637049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • A Research Agenda for Uncooperative Federalists
    • Ernest A. Young, A Research Agenda for Uncooperative Federalists, 48 TULSA L. REV. 427, 445 n.118 (2013).
    • (2013) TULSA L. REV , vol.48 , Issue.118 , pp. 427
    • Young, E.A.1
  • 134
    • 70349823049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For further exploration of this idea, see Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, supra note 7, at 1142-60.
    • Second-Order Diversity , pp. 1142-1160
    • Gerken1
  • 135
    • 70349823049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, supra note 7, 1132-42, 1152-60, 1165-71, 1176-84
    • Second-Order Diversity , pp. 1132-1142
    • Gerken1
  • 136
    • 84898617810 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Gerken, Dissenting by Deciding, supra note 7, at 1769-74, 1782-91, 1794-1804.
    • Dissenting By Deciding , pp. 1769-1774
  • 140
    • 0033245990 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent "Yes
    • Jane Mansbridge, Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent "Yes," 61 J. POL. 628, 628 (1999).
    • (1999) J. POL , vol.61 , pp. 628
    • Mansbridge, J.1
  • 141
    • 84898632400 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., BARBER, supra note 74, at 119-20, 152
    • Barber1
  • 144
    • 0041693917 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race and the Right to Vote After Rice v. Cayetano
    • Ellen D. Katz, Race and the Right to Vote After Rice v. Cayetano, 99 MICH. L. REV. 491, 512-14 (2000)
    • (2000) MICH. L. REV , vol.99 , pp. 491
    • Katz, E.D.1
  • 145
    • 0346507715 scopus 로고
    • Conceptions of Democracy in American Constitutional Argument: Voting Rights
    • Frank I. Michelman, Conceptions of Democracy in American Constitutional Argument: Voting Rights, 41 FLA. L. REV. 443, 478-79 (1989).
    • (1989) FLA. L. REV , vol.41 , pp. 443
    • Michelman, F.I.1
  • 146
    • 0001801819 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Race, Culture, Identity: Misunderstood Connections
    • note
    • I borrow the term from K. Anthony Appiah, Race, Culture, Identity: Misunderstood Connections, in K. ANTHONY APPIAH & AMY GUTMANN, COLOR CONSCIOUS: THE POLITICAL MORALITY OF RACE 30, 97 (1996).
    • (1996) COLOR CONSCIOUS: The POLITICAL MORALITY of RACE , pp. 30
    • Anthony, A.K.1
  • 147
    • 70349823049 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a deeper examination of these ideas, see Gerken, Second-Order Diversity, supra note 7, at 1156-58.
    • Second-Order Diversity , pp. 1156-1158
    • Gerken1
  • 148
    • 84898668524 scopus 로고
    • note
    • At least until the Supreme Court deemed the program unconstitutional, giving the program extra scrutiny because it was enacted by a black-majority city council rather than a white one. City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989).
    • (1989)
  • 149
    • 22744439434 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • John Hart Ely and the Problem of Gerrymandering: The Lion in Winter
    • Pamela S. Karlan, John Hart Ely and the Problem of Gerrymandering: The Lion in Winter, 114 YALE L.J. 1329, 1332 (2005).
    • (2005) YALE L.J , vol.114 , pp. 1329
    • Karlan, P.S.1
  • 150
    • 84890845418 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a fuller account, see Gerken, Foreword, supra note 7, at 52-55.
    • Foreword , pp. 52-55
    • Gerken1
  • 151
    • 84898668521 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Bush v. Vera, 517 U.S. 952, 1060-76 (1996) (Souter, J., dissenting).
    • (1996)
  • 152
    • 33646025164 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Groups, Politics, and the Equal Protection Clause
    • Samuel Issacharoff & Pamela S. Karlan, Groups, Politics, and the Equal Protection Clause, 58 U. MIAMI L. REV. 35, 47-50 (2003).
    • (2003) U. MIAMI L. REV , vol.58 , pp. 35
    • Issacharoff, S.1    Karlan, P.S.2
  • 155
    • 84884033286 scopus 로고
    • The Moral Distinctiveness of Representative Democracy
    • George Kateb, The Moral Distinctiveness of Representative Democracy, 91 ETHICS 357, 360 (1981).
    • (1981) ETHICS , vol.91 , pp. 357
    • Kateb, G.1
  • 156
  • 157
    • 84898668522 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • See, e.g., Mansbridge, supra note 74, at 651
    • Mansbridge1
  • 158
    • 84898668523 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Taylor, supra note 20, at 100.
    • Taylor1
  • 159
    • 84898632397 scopus 로고
    • note
    • I borrow the phrase from Justice Souter. Johnson v. De Grandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1020 (1994).
    • (1994)
  • 160
    • 84898632398 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See supra Part I.
  • 161
    • 79851478236 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • The Supreme Court 2002 Term-Comment: Admissions Rituals as Political Acts: Guardians at the Gates of our Democratic Ideals
    • Lani Guinier, The Supreme Court 2002 Term-Comment: Admissions Rituals as Political Acts: Guardians at the Gates of our Democratic Ideals, 117 HARV. L. REV. 113, 189-90 (2003).
    • (2003) HARV. L. REV , vol.117 , pp. 113
    • Guinier, L.1
  • 162
    • 84898668520 scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g., Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993).
    • (1993)
  • 163
    • 84898632399 scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g., City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co., 488 U.S. 469 (1989)
    • (1989)
  • 164
    • 84898617460 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ricci v. DeStefano, 557 U.S. 557, 596 (2009) (Alito, J., concurring).
    • (2009)
  • 165
    • 84898668518 scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g., Williamson v. Lee Optical of Okla., 348 U.S. 483 (1955).
    • (1955)
  • 166
    • 84898668519 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • E.g., Parents Involved in Cmty. Sch. v. Seattle Sch. Dist. No. 1, 551 U.S. 701 (2007).
    • (2007)
  • 167
    • 84898649964 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Croson, 488 U.S. 469.
  • 168
    • 84898649965 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Ricci, 557 U.S. at 598-605 (Alito, J., concurring).
  • 169
    • 84898632396 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Williamson, 348 U.S. 483; United States v. Carolene Products Co., 304 U.S. 144 (1938).
    • (1938)
  • 170
    • 84898649966 scopus 로고
    • note
    • Johnson v. De Grandy, 512 U.S. 997, 1020 (1994).
    • (1994)
  • 171
    • 84898668517 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • Parents Involved, 551 U.S. at 736
  • 172
    • 84898649963 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id. at 764 (Thomas, J., concurring)
  • 173
    • 84898617459 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id. at 794 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment)
  • 174
    • 84898632395 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • id. at 806 (Breyer, J., dissenting).
  • 175
    • 84898617458 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • United States v. Windsor, 133 S. Ct. 2675, 2692 (2013) (quoting Bond v. United States, 131 S. Ct. 2355, 2359 (2011)).
    • (2013)
  • 176
    • 84898668514 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • Id. at 2693.
  • 177
    • 84898668515 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • See supra Section I.B.
  • 178
    • 84898668516 scopus 로고    scopus 로고
    • note
    • For a skeptical view of such attempts, see Waldron, supra note 2.
    • Waldron1
  • 179
    • 84884028511 scopus 로고
    • Beyond Carolene Products
    • Bruce Ackerman, Beyond Carolene Products, 98 HARV. L. REV. 713, 740 (1985).
    • (1985) HARV. L. REV , vol.98 , pp. 713
    • Ackerman, B.1


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