Globalization and families: Accelerated systemic social change

Globalization and Families: Accelerated Systemic Social Change

Volumn , Issue , 2010, Pages 1-220

  Trask, Bahira Sherif ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF DELAWARE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892299396     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-88285-7     Document Type: Book

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370. See, for example, Rodrik (1997), Prakash and Hart (2000), Guillen (2001), Stiglitz (2002), Glatzer and Rueschemeyer (2005) and Dehesa (2007).
371. In the following chapter, the debate on family definitions is reviewed.
372. Individuals are bound to each other either through emotional, legal or kinship ties. In the West, as in many other parts of the world, we characterize these relationships as family.
373. See Parkin and Stone (2004) for the anthropological perspective on kinship and family discussions.
374. As of the writing of this book, one article on this topic (Edgar 2004) had been published.
375. The world catalogue currently lists over 61,000 publications dealing with various aspects of globalization.
376. Interestingly, globalization has entered into the vocabulary of other languages also.
377. The varying meanings accorded to globalization have been concisely discussed by J. Scholte in Globalization. A critical introduction (2000).
378. There is a great deal of controversy about which of these depictions of globalization accurately delineate the term
379. An interesting example is the current popularity of social networking sites that link individuals across the globe. These networks are now being harnessed into certain social movements a phenomenon in this form was unimaginable even just 2 or 3 years ago.
380. This is also the perspective that leads to the mass demonstrations every year against meetings of the G8 and the World Trade Organization.
381. This ecological argument is found in a multitude of writings juxtaposing the Northern hemisphere with the Southern hemisphere, and arguing that the North is industrialized, while the South is "developing."
382. One of the most dramatic modern day examples can be found in the United Arab Emirates where the world's largest man-made islands have been constructed on water (The Palm Dubai and The Palms) and desert conditions have even been modified to include an indoor skiing arena.
383. Obviously this is not true for all individuals nor all relationships however, it is present to a much greater extent than was imagined even just a couple of decades ago.
384. For example, when it comes to the study of families, books on global families are virtually all organized by country. As an illustration, "French families" will be contrasted to "Chinese families" and Latinos are compared to Asians. In a globalized context, these demarcations have little significance and do not offer us useful insights.
385. For example, immigrant families to the United States today may, on the surface, look like immigrant families at the turn of the twentieth century. The small nuclear family leaves the larger extended family behind as it resettles in the United States (this is just one example the multiple types of immigrant families will be discussed in a later chapter). However, today's immigrant family will differ in tangible and intangible ways. One hundred years ago, immigrants were limited in their communications with their home societies. Re-settlement meant a loss of cultural ties with family, friends, and all that represented their lives. This also implied assimilation to the host society we see this in language acquisition, the socialization of children, and even often name changes. Today's immigrant, and/or immigrant family enters on a new trajectory once it decides to make the radical shift. They may move to a new society but the ties with the old one need not be broken. Communication technologies allow individuals to remain in constant contact with family and friends, mass transportation allow for relatively easy access to home again should that need arise, and a growing pride in ethnicity allows individuals to retain the vestiges of their backgrounds be they language, customs, names, etc.
386. We continue to be faced with complex unanswered questions: Under what conditions do we move to greater egalitarian relations between men and women in the intimate sphere of the family? If so, under what socio-economic and cultural conditions? Do families socialize their children in increasingly similar ways due to the spread of certain types of knowledge? Do the structural changes that have affected so many people around the globe (women working outside the home in unprecedented numbers, later ages at marriage and childbearing) influence families in varying ways? Does the local still take precedence over the global? How do we categorize people in a census, a research study, a society according to class? Religion? National affiliation? And we need to pose newer questions about the role of technology in social relationships within families and outside of families? Are we moving to new social forms that will eventually replace families as we know them? How does transnationalism affect family processes?
387. Fictive kin refers to those individuals who someone may feel emotional and/or economic ties to without a biological, adoptive, or marital relationship.
388. Nowhere is this more evident than in the U.S. where opposing movements juxtapose "traditional family values" against "new" family forms such as same-sex couples.
389. In a symbolic gesture, that acknowledges the multiplicity of family types, the flagship journal on the study of families changed its name from The Journal of Marriage and the Family to The Journal of Marriage and Family in 2001.
390. See Smith (1993) for a pivotal article on SNAF the Standard North American Family and its ubiquitous presence in school and benefits policies.
391. In the field of anthropology the study of family has continued to be tied to "kinship" studies and social organization. See Parkin et al. (2004) for a detailed overview of kinship and family studies from the nineteenth century onwards. Thus, there is little intersection today between the fields even though both could benefit from much more cross fertilization.
392. I first became aware of this fact in graduate school. I was very interested in pursuing the study of non-Western families but was discouraged by conversations with scholars from various parts of the world who told me that "there was no new knowledge to gained from pursuing this topic."
393. In fact there is a growing hegemony of thought stemming from the U.S. This will be seen later on in the chapter on children and childhood.
394. On a personal note, this body of scholarship provided the impetus for all of my future research on non-Western, and consequently Western families.
395. There are many reasons for this issue including the inability of most English speakers to read other languages and the domination of journals published in the English language. Even when books and articles on family issues are published in other countries, they are rarely included in bibliographies, book reviews and the like.
396. There is a great deal of debate about the usage of terms like Millennials or Generation X'ers. The question centers around stereotyping of generalizing about large groups of individuals who are characterized by differences of social class, race, religion, education and other variables. Nevertheless, a life course perspective suggests that individuals born in the same cohort do experience and internalize certain world events such as wars, technological change and other such phenomena with a somewhat similar effect. See Elder (1999), for example.
397. When using the term "kin relationships" I am not implying just blood lines. I include all types of relationships including adoption, foster children, and other bonded units.
398. Anthropology is replete with examples of marriage and families that differ quite radically from contemporary family forms, such as ghost marriage among the Nuer (Evans-Pritchard 1940) and a specific culturally sanctioned type of adult-child marriage among a northern Russian tribe (Levi-Strauss 1956). Most anthropological readers have many such fascinating examples, indicating the cultural nature of relationship formation.
399. A significant issue in many countries in Europe and in the US, Canada, and Australia is the infusion of immigrants from societies with very different notions of who is and who is not "family." This issue promises to grow in the future with continued mass migrations.
400. The popularity of free Internet services such as Skype allow individuals to video conference with one another creating new linkages to far away places.
401. In Chap. 8 we examine the link between women's fertility, employment and nation-state policies more closely.
402. In fact, a recent New York Times article detailed how a growing number of American women are choosing to have two children on their own, through new reproductive techniques, in the quest for the "perfect" family.
403. This phenomenon will be described in greater detail in Chap. 3.
404. The actual details of economic restructuring will be more closely discussed further on in Chap. 8 detailing the relationship between natio tates and globalization. For an example of the highly controversial nature of these trends, see Eisenstein (2005).
405. Interestingly, predictions in the 1970s and 1980s assumed that the service sector would lessen due to greater automation in the future. However, the service sector has actually expanded beyond most people's estimations.
406. Claims for patriarchy have been challenged throughout American history by the experiences, particularly of women of color and immigrants who were not able to live by these "idealized" norms.
407. Maquiladora refers to a type of factory that imports materials and equipment on a duty-free and tariff-free basis for assembly and then re-exports the products, typically back to the country from where most of the products originated. The northern border of Mexico is a major maquiladora site for the production of U.S. goods. Typically, profits do not benefit the host country, in this case Mexico, but instead, flow back to the investor country.
408. A large feminist literature has now disproven the public private dichotomy by illustrating that it is impossible to dichotomize the concepts. Public and private spheres are closely tied to one another.
409. See Bianchi et al. (2000) for an interesting exposition of how the intensive mothering model has been growing since the 1960s.
410. In colonial America, it was thought that men were more suited toward childrearing, especially teaching children values and morals.
411. Opportunities is used loosely in this context as it may refer, as we have seen, to a wide range of low-paying jobs or even sex work.
412. Migration may also increase due to climate changes that could make certain regions uninhabitable.
413. There is some terminological confusion between migrants and immigrants. Migrant is often used to describe an individual who leaves a place and goes to another without reference to direction, purpose, or duration. Immigrant most
414. The United Nations (2008) estimates that exactly 50% of all global immigrants today are female.
415. According to United Nations (2008) estimates, global refugees number around 11.4 million people.
416. For example, in France the issue of the head scarf that many Muslim women choose to wear is a highly controversial issue because it is perceived as making a religious statement in a secular society.
417. All children born in the United States automatically receive American citizenship.
418. This is a highly complicated discussion due to a long history in the U.S. of ambivalence with respect to assimilating immigrants into the mainstream of society and the rising rate of, particularly, Hispanics. See, Freeman (2006) for some interesting statistics.
419. Most of these portrayals have very strong racial overtones with an emphasis on the "otherness" of immigrants and their non-European roots.
420. For a comprehensive discussion about these issues, see Castles and Miller 2003. For example, many European countries are currently struggling with guest workers and refugee populations that refuse to return to their native countries despite financial incentives.
421. It is important to point out that upper class women throughout the world have always employed others to perform domestic labor and that poor women have traditionally been burdened by a double shift in the home, including in the U.S. What is different about the current situation is the breadth of need, especially for child and elder care among the middle-classes.
422. Globalizing forces have also contributed to a spike in sex tourism and the trade in women for sexual services. There is much academic dispute on whether girls and women make this choice consciously or are coerced into this type of labor. It is sufficient to say here that it seems that both phenomena are coexisting.
423. A virtually unexplored phenomenon is children immigrating without their parents. For example, some well-to-do Asian parents send their children to the United States to attend school in order to give them a better chance at entering the U.S. universities. They are at times referred to as "parachute" children. See, Orellana et al. (2001) for a discussion.
424. Elder (1999) points out that "the life course of individuals is embedded in and shaped by the historical times and places they experience over their lifetime" (p. 3). In addition, the developmental effects of transitions differentiate according to when events occur in an individual's life (Elder 1999). Variables such as migration history, timing, generational status, and geographic location of settlement must be considered when interpreting the experiences of immigrant individuals and families.
425. It is interesting to note that when immigrants from Northern Europe or middle-and uppermiddle class Chinese move to the U.S., they are surprised by the "traditional" gender ideology that so many Americans embrace.
426. Children who immigrate at a young age with their families are most commonly referred to as the 1.5 generation (Rumbaut 2006).
427. It is important to note that while men have historically been the "immigrants," we have not seen a concomitant interest in the effects of this migration on children's development.
428. The intensive mothering model extends even to the political sphere in the United States. Several years ago, a close advisor to the then President, George Bush resigned citing "wanting to spend more time with her teenage son" as the reason. This decision was applauded in the media with only a few feminists questioning this premise.
429. Obviously, this is a very different international upbringing than the family that moves its children to another country due to parental employment at a high occupational level. Still, it is interesting to pursue the question how children are influenced by the greater i nternational exposure they receive through their parent's migration if they stay behind.
430. It has been pointed out that moving from one socio-economic class to another can also have profound effects on identity formation. See Rayna Rapp for a clear exposition on class in America.
431. Current statistics indicate that 48% of children under the age of 5 in the U.S. are either immigrant children or nonwhite. This highlights the need to better understand identity formation in individuals from nonmainstream backgrounds.
432. There are obviously many complicating factors such as race, ethnicity, national origin, etc. that come into play. And yet, I would argue that this is still the hegemonic discourse all are equal and all have opportunities. This is obviously not the case, as for example the work of Suarez-Orozco, C. and Suarez-Orozco, M. (2002). Children of migration, Harvard illustrates.
433. There is a large body of work on the immigrant children and their relationships with their parents. See for example, A. Booth et al. (1997)) Immigration and the family.
434. See for example, Bernhardt, Goldscheider, Goldscheider and Bjeren, Migration, gender, and family transitions to adulthood in Sweden, 2007.
435. Among the wealthy, in most societies, domestic work is traditionally serviced out. This is also the arena where patriarchal ideologies are most engrained, in terms of preserving very traditional gender roles. However, as women's educational level rises, so do questions about the role of careers and employment even in these families.
436. Reproductive labor refers to the labor that households need to care and maintain themselves and future generations of the labor force. It refers primarily to childbearing, the raising of children, and daily tasks that are needed to sustain household members.
437. Issues around the care of the disabled are virtually ignored as the disabled are "hidden" from public view in so many countries.
438. Hartmann was working from a strong Marxist-feminist perspective.
439. His work has come under extensive criticism from feminist economists due to his argument that the efficiency of a breadwinner/homemaker model of family was superior to that of a dual-earner family. However, I would still argue that his work is valuable because it initiated discussion on this topic in various fields.
440. This brief review focuses primarily on the United States. However, particularly in Europe, this topic has elicited much attention by national research institutes and policy makers.
441. See Crompton et al. (2007) for a discussion of these issues in the European sphere.
442. This phenomenon has led to new discussions about those individuals who choose to parent vs. those who remain childfree. In fact, there are some who argue that it is not gender anymore that matters in terms of career advancement but the choice to have or not have a child.
443. Much of the work on this topic is based on large national surveys that do not adequately capture the nuances of family life.
444. The origins of microcredit are primarily attributed to Mohammed Yunus, an economist who began this practice in the village of Grameen in Bangladesh in 1977. By 1999, his Bank (Grameen Bank) had 1,000 rural branches and extended to 45,000 villages lending more than one billion dollars to his two million members, of which 94% were female (Eisenstein 2005).
445. Typically the group interest rate is between 12 and 24% a year based on the flat calculation method.
446. Nowhere is this more evident, than in the welfare to work discussions of the 1990s where "welfare mothers" represented through images of young Black women with babies, were highlighted as the primary recipients of welfare and social services.
447. You may also refer to my article in Anthropology Today (1999) on this topic. There is a large literature at this point on women's roles and their reasons for veiling throughout the Muslim world. See for example. Moghadam, V. (2003). Modernizing women: Gender and social change in the Middle East. Lynne Rienner Pub.
448. Burkina Fasso is considered one of the poorest countries in the world.
449. There is a growing fathering literature on the benefits of fathering for men [see, Palkovitz (2002) for example], but much of this literature has stayed within the confines of a 'fathering' dialogue and has not extended to broader discussions within family studies, economics, or anthropology.
450. Heymann (2006) also documents that in certain cases, there is no one to take care of the children. They are just left to themselves.
451. The Convention on the Rights of the Child will be detailed extensively in the next chapter.
452. Becker (2007) presents an extensive discussion about the problems involved with using crossnational data and statistics.
453. Annette Lareau refers to this as concerted cultivation. She argues in her book Unequal Childhoods (2003) that middle-and upper-middle class families in the United States raise their children in a highly scheduled and regulated manner in order to provide them with the tools to be successful in life. She calls this concerted cultivation, while working class and poor families allow their children more freedom, termed by her as "natural growth." However, according to Lareau, "natural growth" results in working class and poor children not being able to function as well in society as children raised with "concerted cultivation" which impedes them from moving out of their social class.
454. This representation becomes highly problematic in the U.S. legal arena, where there is constant dispute around the issue of trying children as adults, or as a unique category.
455. In fact, there is some evidence that in certain very poor areas in the U.S. in particular, the lives of children are not that different from those of children from poor families in the developing world.
456. This is particularly true in China where a whole literature on how to educate your children so that they will be able to study in the U.S. has become increasingly popular. In some of the most famous books, Chinese visitors to the U.S. have upon their return documented all of the "methods" that American parents use in order to prepare their children for higher education. Woronov (2007) reports that books such as How Americans raise their daughters, How to raise your child to get into Yale, or Sports and art classes in American schools draw enormous Chinese audiences.
457. Regio Emilia is a child-focused approach to early childhood education that originated in Northern Italy.
458. See Hoffman and Zhao (2007, p. 71) for an expanded discussion on this issue.
459. The complexity of preparing children and adolescents in the U.S. to enter elite universities attests to this phenomenon. A whole industry has now built up around SAT preparation, college essay writing and preparing for college interviews. These services are only available to an elite group of children due to the high cost associated with them.
460. In The U.S. Hall in 1929 was one of the first to identify adolescence as a specific phase in the life cycle requiring specialized attention.
461. It is important to note that historically in the U.S., there was also a great deal of variation with respect to marriage and the like due to early death of parents, financial dependence of younger siblings, etc. In fact, scholars such as Hareven (2000) have argued that life course timing was much more erratic in the past than in our contemporary world. However, in the pre-World War II example, I am referring primarily to the mainstream, accepted norms of the society.
462. I have purposefully added the discussion on linking children rights and women to this chapter due to the fact that these discourses are almost always separated. While this is understandable from a Western feminist view, I believe it leads to false conclusions when applied to other parts of the world.
463. It is important to note the ungendered nature of most work on children.
464. Northern and Southern are often used as synonyms for industrialized and developing nations. There are no agreements on terms in the social sciences and there is much ambiguity related to this terminology.
465. Our current 9 months school model is a remnant of predominantly agrarian times when children were expected to assist with the farming work and especially the harvest. Despite this knowledge, the school calendar in the U.S. has not adjusted to the contemporary reality of most parents working outside the home, year round.
466. In fact, having "street smarts" often has a somewhat "lower class" connotation in English speaking societies.
467. In Vietnam, all children must be officially registered. For example, when a child is born in the countryside, it may only live in the local region and not move to any other city. See Burr (2002) for greater details.
468. Sweden leads the industrialized world with an elderly population of 18%.
469. A small but new body of literature, for example, has examined menopause from a crosscultural perspective and found that this stage of life is experienced very differently by women in various cultures. While in the U.S., the tendency has been to "medicalize" women and, until recently, prescribe them hormonal therapies, in other places women may barely notice the symptoms of menopause.
470. Sen (1995) compares the lack of value of the contribution by elderly individuals to the undervaluing of women's domestic contributions.
471. China is followed by India at six million, Japan at five million and Germany at three million.
472. There seem to be both physiological as well as social reasons for women's increased longevity. See, for example, Hooyman and Kiyak (2006).
473. Castel's data are based on his analysis of statistics from OECD countries. OECD countries refer to those countries that are members of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development.
474. See the work of Ingrid Connidis for some wonderful examples of this issue.
475. Often ignored in these discussions is that even women who work in professional jobs, often take time off for child bearing which bears detrimentally on their future earning potential.
476. The focus is on women because men still have the advantage of acquiring a pension under the current system. Also, given the current ideology and structure of Chinese society, men have an easier time finding full time employment.
477. There is a serious dearth of studies on this issue in both other Western countries and the developing world.
478. In this discussion, however, it is important to point out that care is quite often defined differently in various studies. So, for example, there is evidence that men also participate in elder care, albeit in different ways from women. They may provide instrumental care such as money or transportation while women tend to take on day to day tasks. See Hareven (2000) for example.
479. Discussions of carework in the U.S. are particularly troubling since they are often founded on the unspoken assumption that women "should" be assuming these responsibilities and that by hiring other women, in this case, immigrant women to perform this labor, they are somehow passing on, what they should rightfully be doing themselves.
480. Interestingly, many of these arguments are founded on the basic assumption that this is work that should be kept in the family but distributed differently. We have little discourse around the need for states to step in and provide policies and services that will alleviate the caretaking burden of working families.
481. For a nuanced discussion of this topic see Gupta and Sharma (2006). They problematize the state and point out that in order to understand the relationship between the state and globalization, we need to understand that there is no such "unit" as the state. "Such an approach problematizes the unity of the state by looking at different levels, sites, and scales, weighs the enormous amount of cultural work that goes into efforts to represent 'the state,' its legitimacy, and its authority, and finally, by considering the interplay between political economy, social structure, institutional design, and everyday practices and representations, allows for a nuanced appreciation of continuities across seemingly historic transformations." (p. 281).
482. Giddens includes himself in this second perspective.
483. See the discussion later on about the "un-democratic" nature of these institutions.
484. See Carrington (2002) for her informative treatise on this topic, as well as a psychoanalytic analysis of the relationship between states, normative concepts of family and globalizing forces.
485. The word citizen is used here to stand for individual or resident. It does not imply legal status in this context.
486. Structural adjustment policies included other provisions, as well, including devaluation of currencies, shrinking the private sector, "realigning" domestic prices to the global market, privatizing state enterprises and regularizing land titles. See Eisenstein (2005) for a more detailed discussion.
487. Primarily social scientists, and especially sociologists, ascribe to this interpretation of the relationship between globalization and the welfare state. See Brady et al. (2007) for a thorough overview of these debates.
488. With the exception of California which is the first state to have a small paid leave.
489. See Castles (2003) for his numerical analyses.
490. The U.S. presents a somewhat different case from Europe and the industrialized countries in Asia. U.S. fertility levels are predicted to remain relatively constant due to massive immigration, and the fact, that a group, immigrant women bear more children than what is required to sustain population levels.
491. Polivka (2001) cites a Human Development Report (1999) that points out that the world's top three billionaires together have assets that are greater than the GNP of all least developed countries and their combined 600 million inhabitants. The same report also states that by the late 1990s, the poorest fifth of the global population had 1% of the world GDP in comparison to the top fifth, which had 86%.
492. There is much debate in the academic literature on this topic, specifically among sociologists. However, this debate has had marginal effects on actual social policies. That becomes particularly obvious around issues such as reproductive labor or the rights of migrating noncitizens.
493. It is striking the extent to which discussions about colonialism and its after-effects have been relegated completely to the sidelines in mainstream discourse at this point.
494. Under growing pressure, the IMF and World Bank have begun to institute measures to raise the standard of living for citizens of the poorest of the developing countries. However many of these initiatives are criticized due to their over reliance on Western ideas, which may actually have detrimental effects in local contexts. See Kingfisher (2002) for a wide ranging set of examples.
495. I do not mean to imply here that women in the industrialized and developing world have the "same" tasks or circumstances, only that women in both regions are still principally responsible for the care domain of their households, be it child or elder care.
496. The value of goods and services are updated every year to take into account changes in cost.
497. Ravallion (2003) suggests that national datasets are often inaccurate because the rich underreport their incomes.
498. The $1 a day figure actually translates into $1.08 and $2 equals $2.16 in 1993 purchasing power parity dollars. See Harrison (2007) for a more extensive explanation.
499. Aisbett (2007) summarizes the consensus between globalization advocates and critics. She points out that there is agreement that trade is equated with growth; that growth tends assist the poor; that government policies can buffer negative effects; that poverty should be correlated with education and health, in addition to income; and that political reform is key to positive development.
500. See Wade (2004) for a discussion of the various factors that make global statistical comparisons exceedingly inaccurate.
501. Wade (2004) points out that income inequality in China is greater today than before the Communists took over in 1949.
502. Interestingly, these are the same arguments that were put forward in a more explicit manner through modernization theory. Despite the fact that this type of evolutionary approach has been discounted in much of the academic literature, it reappears at times in new forms in the globalization literature with respect to social life.
503. Appadurai (1990) identifies five different dimensions: ethnoscapes, the movement of individuals around the globe for reasons of leisure, work, and politics; mediascapes, the flow of media information, and technology; technoscapes, the flow of technology across borders; finanscapes, the flow of global capital; and ideoscapes, the flow of various political ideologies.
504. See the New York Times, December 10, 2008 for the story about the relationship between blogging and the eventual arrest of a male sexual harasser, the first such measure against harassment in Egyptian history.
505. Under growing pressure, the IMF and World Bank have begun to institute measures to raise the standard of living for citizens of the poorest of the developing countries. However many of these initiatives are criticized due to their over reliance on Western ideas, which may actually have detrimental effects in local contexts. See Kingfisher (2002) for a wide ranging set of examples.