Catalyst layer modeling: Structure, properties and performance

PEM Fuel Cell Electrocatalysts and Catalyst Layers: Fundamentals and Applications

Volumn , Issue , 2008, Pages 381-446

  Eikerling, Michael H ^a,b   Malek, Kourosh ^c   Wang, Qianpu ^a  

^a NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL CANADA   (Canada)

^b SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^c National Research Council of Canada Institute for Fuel Cell Innovation ^*

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84892053983     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-84800-936-3_8     Document Type: Chapter

References (155)

1. Vielstich W, Lamm A, Gasteiger H, editors. Handbook of fuel cells: fundamentals, technology, applications. Weinheim: VCH-Wiley, 2003.
2. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA, Kucernak AR. Water in polymer electrolyte fuel cells: friend or foe? Phys Today 2006;59:38-44.
3. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA, Kulikovsky AA. Physical modeling of fuel cells and their components. In: Bard AJ, Stratmann M, Macdonald D, Schmuki P, editors. Encyclopedia of electrochemistry, volume 5, electrochemical engineering. Weinheim: VCH-Wiley, 2007: 447-543.
4. Gottesfeld S, Zawodzinski TA. Polymer electrolyte fuel cells. In: Advances in electrochemical science and engineering, volume 5. Alkire RC, Gerischer H, Kolb DM, Tobias CW. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1997: 195-301.
5. Carlson EJ. DOE hydrogen program annual merit review, May 16-19, 2006. Available from http://hydrogendoedev.nrel.gov/annual-review06-proceedings.html.
6. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA, Kulikovsky AA. Can theory help to improve fuel cells? Fuel Cell Review 2005;1:15-25.
7. Malek K, Eikerling M, Wang Q, Navessin T, Liu Z. Self-organization in catalyst layers of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Phys Chem C 2007;111:13627-34.
8. Wieckowski A, Savinova ER, Vayenas CG. Catalysis and electrocatalysis at nanoparticle surfaces. New York: Marcel Dekker, 2003.
9. Lasia A. Applications of the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to hydrogen adsorption, evolution and absorption into metals. In: Modern aspects of electrochemistry, volume 35. Conway BE, White RE, editors. New York: Kluwer/Plenum, 2002: 1-49.
10. Raistrick ID. In: Van Zee JW, White RE, Kinoshita K, Burney HS, editors. Diaphragms, separators, and ion exchange membranes. Pennington, NY: The Electrochemical Society Proceedings Series, 1986: 156.
11. Wilson MS, Gottesfeld S. High performance catalyzed membranes of ultra-low Pt loadings for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1992;139(2):L28-30.
12. Uchida M, Aoyama Y, Eda E, Ohta A. New preparation method for polymerelectrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1995;142(2):463-8.
13. Frumkin AN. Zh Fiz Khim 1949;23:1477.
14. Ksenzhek OS, Stender VV, Dokl A. NSSSR 1956;107:280.
15. Mund K, Sturm FV. Degree of utilization and specific effective surface area of electrocatalysts in porous electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1975;20:463-7.
16. De Levie R. On porous electrodes in electrolyte solutions: I. Capacitance effects. Electrochim Acta 1963;8(10):751-80.
17. De Levie R. Electrochemical response of porous and rough electrodes. In: Advances in electrochemistry and electrochemical engineering, volume 6. New York: Wiley Interscience, 1967: 329-97.
18. Raistrick ID. Impedance studies of porous electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1990;35(10):1579-86.
19. Sapoval B, Chazalviel J-N, Peyriere J. Electrical response of fractal and porous interfaces. Phys Rev A 1988;38:5867-87.
20. Wang JC. Impedance of a fractal electrolyte-electrode interface. Electrochim Acta 1988;33, 707-11.
21. Sapoval B. Fractal electrodes and constant phase angle response: exact examples and counter examples. Solid State Ionics 1987;23(4):253-9.
22. Kaplan T, Gray LJ, Liu SH. Self-affine fractal model for a metal-electrolyte interface. Phys Rev B 1987;35:5379-81.
23. Halsey TC. Stability of a flat interface in electrodeposition without mixing. Phys Rev A 1987;35:3512-14.
24. Pajkossy T, Nyikos L. Scaling-law analysis to describe the impedance behavior of fractal electrodes. Phys Rev B 1990;42:709-19.
25. Chizmadzhev YA, Markin VS, Tarasevich MR, Chirkov YG. The macrokinetics of processes in porous media. J Electrochem Soc 119;10:292C.
26. Chizmadzhev YA, Chirkov YG. In: Horsman P, Conway BE, Yeager E, editors. Comprehensive treatise of electrochemistry, volume 6. London: Plenum Press, 1983: 356.
27. Chizmadzhev YA, Chirkov YG. In: Kazarinov VE, editor. The kinetics of complex electrochemical reactions. Moscow: Nauka, 1988: 340.
28. Tantram ADS, Tseung A.C.C. Structure and performance of hydrophobic gas electrodes. Nature 1969;221:167-8.
29. Giner J, Hunter C. The mechanism of operation of the Teflon-bonded gas diffusion electrode: a mathematical model. J Electrochem Soc 1969;116(8):1124-30.
30. Iczkowski RP, Cutlip MB. Voltage losses in fuel cell cathodes. J Electrochem Soc 1980;127(7):1433-40.
31. Bjornbom P. Modelling of a double-layered PTFE-bonded oxygen electrode. Electrochim Acta 1987;32(1):115-9.
32. Srinivasan S, Hurwitz HD, Bockris JMO. Fundamental equations of electrochemical kinetics at porous gas-diffusion electrodes. J Chem Phys 1967;46(8):3108-22.
33. Srinivasan D, Hurwitz HD. Theory of a thin film model of porous gas-diffusion electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1967;12(5):495-512.
34. Glaoguen F, Durand R. Simulations of PEFC cathodes: an effectiveness factor approach. J Appl Electrochem 1997;27:1029-35.
35. Sun W, Peppley BA, Karan K. An improved two-dimensional agglomerate cathode model to study the influence of catalyst layer structural parameters. Electrochim Acta 2005;50.16:3359-74.
36. Karan K. Assessment of transport-limited catalyst utilization for engineering of ultralow Pt loading polymer electrolyte fuel cell anode. Electrochem Comm 2007;9(4):747-53.
37. Jaouen F, Lindbergh G, Sundholm G. Investigation of mass-transport limitations in the solid polymer fuel cell cathode. J Electrochem Soc 2002;149(4):A437-47.
38. Kulikovsk AAy. Performance of catalyst layers of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: exact solutions. Electrochem Comm 2002;4(4):318-23.
39. Stonehart P, Ross P. The use of porous electrodes to obtain kinetic rate constants for rapid reactions and adsorption isotherms of poisons. Electrochim Acta 1976;21(6):441-5.
40. Bernardi DM, Verbrugge MV. A mathematical model of the solid-polymer-electrolyte fuel cell. J Electrochem Soc 1992;139(9):2477-91.
41. You L, Liu H. A two-phase flow and transport model for PEM fuel cells. J Power Sources 2006;155(2):219-30.
42. Springer TE, Gottesfeld S. Fuel cells. In: White RE, Verbrugge MW, Stockel JF, Appleby AJ, editors. Proceedings of the symposium on modeling of batteries and fuel cells. The Electrochemical Society 1991:PV 91-10:197.
43. Springer TE, Wilson MS, Gottesfeld S. Modeling and experimental diagnostics in polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1993;140(12):3513-26.
44. Broadbent SR, Hammersley JM. Percolation processes. I. Crystals and mazes. Proc Camb Phil Soc 1957;53;629-41.
45. Isichenko MB. Percolation, statistical topography, and transport in random media. Rev Mod Phys 1992;64(4):961-1043.
46. Stauffer D, Aharony A. Introduction to percolation theory. London: Taylor & Francis, 1994.
47. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA, Ioselevich AS. How good are the electrodes we use in PEFC? (Understanding structure vs. performance of membrane-electrode assemblies). Fuel Cells 2004;4(3):131-40.
48. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA. Modelling the performance of the cathode catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electroanal Chem 1998;453:89-106.
49. Nam JH, Kaviany M. Effective diffusivity and water-saturation distribution in singleand two-layer PEMFC diffusion medium. Int J Heat Mass Transfer 2003;46.24:4595-611.
50. Eikerling M. Water management in cathode catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 2006;153(3):E58-70.
51. Liu J, Eikerling M. Model of cathode catalyst layers for polymer electrolyte fuel cells: the role of porous structure and water accumulation. Electrochim Acta 2008;53.13:4435-46.
52. Xie J, Wood DL III, More KL, Atanassov P, Borup RL. Microstructural changes of membrane electrode assemblies during PEFC durability testing at high humidity conditions. J Electrochem Soc 2005;152(5):A1011-20.
53. Xie Z, Navessin T, Shi K, Chow R, Wang Q, Song D, et al. Functionally graded cathode catalyst layers for polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 2005;152(6):1171-9.
54. Thiele EW. Ind Eng Chem 1939;31:916-20.
55. Perry ML, Newman J, Cairns EJ. Mass transport in gas-diffusion electrodes: a diagnostic tool for fuel-cell cathodes. J Electrochem Soc, 1998;145(1):5-15.
56. Xia Z, Wang Q, Eikerling M, Liu Z. Effectiveness factor of Pt utilization in cathode catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Can J Chem. In press.
57. Easton EB, Pickup PG. An electrochemical impedance spectroscopy study of fuel cell electrodes. Electrochim Acta 2005;50.12:2469-74.
58. Shan J, Pickup PG. Characterization of polymer supported catalysts by cyclic voltammetry and rotating disk voltammetry. Electrochim Acta 2000;46(1):119-25.
59. Schmidt TJ, Gasteiger HA, Stab GD, Urban PM, Kolb DM, Behm RJ. Characterization of high-surface-area electrocatalysts using a rotating disk electrode configuration. J Electrochem Soc 1998;145(7):2354-8.
60. Dhathathreyan KS, Sridhar P, Sasikumar G, Ghosh KK, Velayutham G, Rajalakshmi N, et al. Development of polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell stack. Int J Hydrogen Energy 1999;24.11:1107-15.
61. Cheng X, Yi B, Han M, Zhang J, Qiao Y, Yu J. Investigation of platinum utilization and morphology in catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Power Sources 1999;79(1):75-81.
62. Sasikumar G, Ihm JW, Ryu H. Dependence of optimum Nafion content in catalyst layer on platinum loading. J Power Sources 2004;132(1):11-17.
63. Li G, Pickup PG. Ionic conductivity of PEMFC electrodes. J Electrochem Soc 2003;150.11:C745-52.
64. Gasteiger HA, Panels JE, Yan SG. Dependence of PEM fuel cell performance on catalyst loading. J Power Sources 2004;127(1):162-71.
65. Zhdanov VP, Kasemo B. Kinetics of rapid reactions on nanometer catalyst particles. Physical Review B 1997;55(7):4105-8.
66. Stamenkovic VR, Mun BS, Arenz M, Mayrhofer KJ, Lucas CA, Wang GF, et al. Trends in electrocatalysis on extended and nanoscale Pt-bimetallic alloy surfaces. Nature Mat 2007;6(3):241-7.
67. 3Ni(111) via increased surface site availability. Science 2007;315.5811:493-7.
68. Andreaus B, Maillard F, Kocylo J, Savinova E, Eikerling M. Kinetic modeling of COad monolayer oxidation on carbon-supported platinum nanoparticles. J Phys Chem B 2006;110.42:21028-40.
69. Wang Q, Eikerling M, Song D, Liu Z. Structure and performance of different types of agglomerates in cathode catalyst layers of PEM fuel cells. J Electroanal Chem 2004;573(1):61-9.
70. Eikerling M, Kharkats YI, Kornyshev AA, Volfkovich YM. Phenomenological theory of electro-osmotic effect and water management in polymer electrolyte protonconducting membranes. J Electrochem Soc 1998;145(8):2684-99.
71. Lucas CA, Markovic NM. Structure relationships in electrochemical reactions. In: Bard AJ, Stratmann M, Calvo EJ, editors. Encyclopedia of electrochemistry, volume 2. Interfacial kinetics and mass transport. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH, 2003.
72. Housmans THM, Wonders AH, Koper M.T.M. Structure sensitivity of methanol electrooxidation pathways on platinum: an on-line electrochemical mass spectrometry study. J Phys Chem B 2006;110(20):10021-31.
73. Boudart M. Catalysis by supported metals. Adv Catal 1969;20;153-66.
74. Eikerling M, Meier J, Stimming U. Hydrogen evolution at a single supported nanoparticle: a kinetic model. Z Phys Chem 2003;217(4):395-414.
75. Maillard F, Eikerling M, Cherstiouk OV, Schreier S, Savinova E, Stimming U. Size effects on reactivity of Pt nanoparticles in CO monolayer oxidation: The role of surface mobility. Faraday Discuss 2004;125:357-77.
76. Cherstiouk OV, Simonov PA, Savinova ER. Model approach to evaluate particle size effects in electrocatalysis: preparation and properties of Pt nanoparticles supported on GC and HOPG. Electrochim Acta 2003;48.25:3851-60.
77. Maillard F, Schreier S, Heinzlik M, Savinova ER, Weinkauf S, Stimming U. Influence of particle agglomeration on the catalytic activity of carbon-supported Pt nanoparticles in CO monolayer oxidation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2005;7(2):385-93.
78. Maillard F, Savinova ER, Stimming U. CO monolayer oxidation on Pt nanoparticles: further insights into the particle size effects. J Electroanal Chem 2006;599(2):221-32.
79. Hansen LB, Stoltze P, Norskov JK, Clausen BS, Niemann W. Is there a contraction of the interatomic distance in small metal particles? Phys Rev Lett 1990;64.26:3155-8.
80. Andreaus B, Eikerling M. Active site model for CO adlayer electro-oxidation on nanoparticle catalysts. J Electroanal Chem 2007;607:121-32.
81. Norskov JK, Christensen CH. Toward efficient hydrogen production at surfaces. Science 2006;312.5778:1322-3.
82. Hammer B, Norskov JK. Theoretical surface science and catalysis-calculations and concepts. Advances in Catalysis 2000;45:71-129.
83. Hammer B, Norskov JK. Why gold is the noblest of all the metals. Nature 1995;376:238-40.
84. Stamenkovic VR, Mun BS, Mayrhofer KJJ, Ross PN, Markovic NM, Rossmeisl J, et al. Changing the activity of electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction by tuning the surface electronic structure. Angew Chem Int Ed 2006;45.18:2815-983.
85. Greeley J, Jaramillo TF, Bonde J, Chorkendorff I, Norskov JK. Computational highthroughput screening of electrocatalytic materials for hydrogen evolution. Nature Mat 2006;5:909-13.
86. Gross A. Reactivity of bimetallic systems studied from first principles. Topics in Catalysis 2006;37(1):29-39.
87. Kolb DM, Engelmann GE, Ziegler JC. On the unusual electrochemical stability of nanofabricated copper clusters. Angew Chemie Int Ed 2000;39(6):1123-5.
88. Xiao L, Wang L. Structures of platinum clusters: planar or spherical? J Phys Chem A 2004;108.41:8605-14.
89. Song C, Ge Q, Wang L. DFT studies of Pt/Au bimetallic clusters and their interactions with the CO molecule. J Phys Chem B 2005;109.47:22341-50.
90. Roudgar A, Gross A. Local reactivity of supported metal clusters: Pdn on Au(1 1 1). Surf Sci 2004;559(2):L180-6.
91. Fernandez R, Ferriera-Aparicio P, Daza L. PEMFC electrode preparation: influence of the solvent composition and evaporation rate on the catalytic layer microstructure. J Power Sources 2005;151:18-24.
92. Sahimi M, Gavalas GR, Tsotsis TT. Statistical and continuum models of fluid-solid reactions in porous media. Chem Eng Sci 1990;45(6):1443-502.
93. Torquato S. Random hetergeneous materials. New York: Springer-Verlag, 2002.
94. Uchida M, Aoyama Y, Eda E, Ohta A. Investigation of the microstructure in the catalyst layer and effects of both perfluorosulfonate ionomer and PTFE-loaded carbon on the catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1995;142.12:4143-9.
95. Uchida M, Fuuoka Y, Sugawara Y, Eda N, Ohta A. Effects of microstructure of carbon support in the catalyst layer on the performance of polymer-electrolyte fuel cells. J Electrochem Soc 1996;143(7):2245-52.
96. Vishnyakov A, Neimark AV. Molecular dynamics simulation of microstructure and molecular mobilities in swollen Nafion membranes. J Phys Chem B 2001;105(39):9586-94.
97. Jang SS, Molinero V, Cagin T, Goddard WA III. Nanophase-segregation and transport in Nafion 117 from molecular dynamics simulations: effect of monomeric sequence. J Phys Chem B 2004;108.10:3149-57.
98. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA, Stimming U. Electrophysical properties of polymer electrolyte membranes: a random network model. J Phys ChemB 1997;101.50:10807-20.
99. Vishnyakov A, Neimark AV. Molecular simulation study of Nafion membrane solvation in water and methanol J Phys Chem B 2000;104.18:4471-8.
100. Spohr E, Commer P, Kornyshev AA. Enhancing proton mobility in polymer electrolyte membranes: lessons from molecular dynamics simulations. J Phys Chem B 2002;106.41:10560-9.
101. Cui S, Liu J, Selvan ME, Keffer DJ, Edwards BJ, Steele WV. A molecular dynamics study of a Nafion polyelectrolyte membrane and the aqueous phase structure for proton transport. J Phys Chem B 2007;111(9):2208-18.
102. Devanathan R, Venkatnathan A, Dupuis M. Atomistic simulation of Nafion membrane. 2. Dynamics of water molecules and hydronium ions. J Phys Chem B 2007;111.45:13006-13.
103. Devanathan R, Venkatnathan A, Dupuis M. Atomistic simulation of Nafion membrane: I. Effect of hydration on membrane nanostructure. J Phys Chem B 2007;111.28:8069-79.
104. Devanathan R, Venkatnathan A, Dupuis M. Atomistic simulations of hydrated Nafion and temperature effects on hydronium ion mobility. J Phys Chem B 2007;111.25:7234-44.
105. Allen MP, Tildesley DJ. Computer simulation of liquids. New York: Oxford University Press, 1989.
106. Moriguchi I, Nakahara F, Furukawa H, Yamada H, Kudo T. Colloidal crystaltemplated porous carbon as a high performance electrical double-layer capacitor material. Electrochem Solid-State Lett 2004;7(8):A221-3.
107. Yamada H, Nakamura H, Nakahara F, Moriguchi I, Kudo T. Electrochemical study of high electrochemical double layer capacitance of ordered porous carbons with both meso/macropores and micropores. J Phys Chem C 2007;111(1):227-33.
108. Hao X, Spieker WA, Regalbuto Jr. A further simplification of the revised physical adsorption (RPA) model. J Coll Interface Sci 2003;267:259-64.
109. Lamas EJ, Balbuena PB. Adsorbate. Effects on structure and shape of supported nanoclusters: a molecular dynamics study. J Phys Chem B 2003;107:11682-9.
110. Huang SP, Balbuena PB. Platinum nanoclusters on graphite substrates: a molecular dynamics study. Molecular Phys 2002;100.13:2165-74.
111. Chen J, Chan-KY. Size-dependent mobility of platinum cluster on a graphite surface. Molecular Simulation 2005;31:527-33.
112. Lamas EJ, Balbuena PB. Molecular dynamics studies of a model polymer-catalyst-carbon interface. Electrochim Acta 2006;51.26:5904-11.
113. Balbuena PB, Lamas EJ, Wang Y. Molecular modeling studies of polymer electrolytes for power sources. Electrochim Acta 2005;50.19:3788-95.
114. Sutton AP, Chen J. Long-range Finnis-Sinclair potentials. Philos Mag Lett 1990;61(3):139-46.
115. Goddard W III, Merinov B, van Duin A, Jacob T, Blanco M, Molinero V, et al. Multiparadigm multi-scale simulations for fuel cell catalysts and membranes. Molecular Simulation 2006;32(3-4):251.
116. Reid RC, Prausnitz JM, BE. Poling in the properties of gases and liquids. Boston: McGraw Hill, 1987.
117. Morrow BH, Striolo A. Morphology and diffusion mechanism of platinum nanoparticles on carbon nanotube bundles. J Phys Chem C 2007;111:17905-13.
118. Wang Q, Eikerling M, Song D, Liu S. Modeling of ultrathin two-phase catalyst layers in PEFCs. J Electrochem Soc 2007;154(6):F95-101.
119. Wescott JT, Qi Y, Subramanian L, Capehart TW. Mesoscale simulation of morphology in hydrated perfluorosulfonic acid membranes. J Chem Phys 2006;124.13:134702-14.
120. Galperin DY, Khokhlov AR. Mesoscopic morphology of proton-conducting polyelectrolyte membranes of Nafion® type: a self-consistent mean field simulation. Macromol Theory Simul 2006;15(2):137-46.
121. Groot RD, Warren PB. Dissipative particle dynamics: bridging the gap between atomistic and mesoscopic simulation. J Chem Phys 1997;107.11:4423-35.
122. Mologin DA, Khalatur PG, Kholhlov AR. Structural organization of water-containing Nafion: a cellular-automaton-based simulation. Macromol Theory Simul 2002;11(5):587-606.
123. Khalatur PG, Talitskikh SK, Khokhlov AR. Structural organization of watercontaining Nafion: the integral equation theory. Macromol Theory Simul 2002;11(5):566-86.
124. Marrink SJ, de Vries AH, Mark AE. The MARTINI force field: coarse grained model for biomolecular simulations. J Phys Chem B 2007;111:7812-24.
125. Izvekov S, Violi A. A coarse-grained molecular dynamics study of carbon nanoparticle aggregation. J Chem Theory Comput 2006;2(3):504-12.
126. Izvekov S, Violi A. A multiscale coarse-graining method for biomolecular systems. J Phys Chem B 2005;109:2469-73.
127. Izvekov S, Violi A, Voth GA. Systematic coarse-graining of nanoparticle interactions in molecular dynamics simulation. J Phys Chem B 2005;109:17019-24.
128. Sahimi M. Heterogeneous materials, Part I and Part II. Heidelberg: Springer, 2003.
129. Sahimi M. Flow phenomena in rocks: from continuum models to fractals, percolation, cellular automata, and simulated annealing. Rev Mod Phys 1993;65(4):1393-1534
130. Shklovskii BI, Efros AL. Electronic properties of doped semiconductors. New York: Springer, 1982.
131. De Gennes PG. Scaling concepts in Polymer physics. Ithaca: Cornell University, 1979.
132. Grassberger P. On the critical behavior of the general epidemic process and dynamical percolation. Math Biosci 1983;63(2):157-72.
133. MacKay G, Jan N. Forest fires as critical phenomena. J Phys 1984;A17.14:L757-60.
134. Ambegaokar VN, Halperin BI, Langer JS. Hopping conductivity in disordered systems. Phys Rev B, 1971;4(8):2612-20.
135. Dullien FAL. Porous media. New York: Academic Press, 1979.
136. Kirkpatrick S. Percolation and conduction. Rev Mod Phys 1973;45(4):574-88.
137. Torquato S. Random heterogeneous materials. Springer: New York, 2002.
138. Milton GW. The theory of composites. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
139. Alcaniz-Monge J, Linares-Solano A, Rand B. Water adsorption on activated carbons: study of water adsorption in micro-and mesopores. J Phys Chem B 2001;105:7998-8006.
140. Lundblad A. Materials characterization of thin film electrodes for PEFC survey of methods and an example. J New Mat Electrochem Sys 2004;7(1):21-8.
141. Ihonen J, Jaouen F, Lindbergh G, Lundblad A, Sundholm G. Investigation of masstransport limitations in the solid polymer fuel cell cathode II. Experimental. J Electrochem Soc 2002;149(4):A448-54.
142. Samson E, Marchand J, Robert JL, Bournazel JP. Modelling ion diffusion mechanisms in porous media. Int J Numer Meth Eng 1999;46(12):2043-60.
143. Moya AA, Horno J. Application of the network simulation method to ionic transport in ion-exchange membranes including diffuse double-layer effects. J Phys Chem B 1999;103(49):10791-9.
144. Parthasarathy A, Srinivasan S, Appleby AJ, Martin CR. Temperature dependence of the electrode kinetics of oxygen reduction at the platinum/Nafion® interface-a microelectrode investigation. J Electrochem Soc 1992;139(9):2530-7.
145. Eisenberg RS. From structure to function in open ionic channels. J Membrane Biol 1999;171(1):1-24.
146. Alfredo AE, Cardenas RD, Kurnikova MG. Three-dimensional Poisson-Nernst-Planck theory studies: influence of membrane electrostatics on Gramicidin A channel conductance. Biophys J 2000;79(1):80-93.
147. Corry B, Kuyucak S,-Chun SHg. Dielectric self-energy in Poisson-Boltzmann and Poisson-Nernst-Planck models of ion channels. Biophys J 2003;84(6):3594-606.
148. Eikerling M, Kornyshev AA. Electrochemical impedance of the cathode catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells. J Electroanal Chem 1999;475(2):107-23.
149. Wang Q, Eikerling M, Song D, Liu S, Navessin T, Xie Z, et al. Functionally graded cathode catalyst layers for polymer electrolyte fuel cell. J Electrochem Soc 2004;151(7):A950-7.
150. Lee SJ, Mukerjee S, McBreen J, Rho YW, Kho YT, Lee TH. Effects of Nafion impregnation on performances of PEMFC electrodes. Electrochim Acta 1998;43.24:3693-701.
151. Passalacqua E, Lufrano F, Squadrito G, Patti A, Giorgi L. Nafion content in the catalyst layer of polymer electrolyte fuel cells: effects on structure and performance. Electrochim Acta 2001;46(6):799-805.
152. Studebaker ML, Snow CW. The influence of ultimate composition upon the wettability of carbon blacks. J Phys Chem 1955;59:973-6.
153. Debe MK. Novel catalysts, catalysts support and catalysts coated membrane methods. Chapter 45. In: Vielstich W, Lamm A, Gasteiger H, editors. Handbook of fuel cells: fundamentals, technology, applications. Weinheim: VCH-Wiley, 2003: 576-89.
154. Neyerlin KC, Gasteiger HA, Mittelsteadt CK, Jorne J, Gu W. Effect of relative humidity on oxygen reduction kinetics in a PEMFC. J Electrochem Soc 2005;152(6):A1073-80.
155. Malek K. Dynamic Monte-Carlo simulation of electrochemical switching of a conducting polymer film. Chem Phys Lett 2002;375(5-6):477-83.