A participatory framework for building resilient social-ecological pastoral systems

Restoring Community Connections to the Land: Building Resilience through Community-based Rangeland Management in China and Mongolia

Volumn , Issue , 2011, Pages 3-36

  Klein, Julia A ^a   Fernández Giménez, María E ^b   Wei, Han ^c   Changqing, Yu ^d   Ling, Du ^e   Dorligsuren, Dulamsuren ^e   Reid, Robin S ^a  

^a Veterinary Dentistry and Oral Surgery   (United States)

^b Colorado State University ^*  (United States)

^c Rural Development Institute of the Academy of Social Sciences   (China)

^d TSINGHUA UNIVERSITY   (China)

^e Mongolian Society for Range Management   (Mongolia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84890603481     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: None     Document Type: Chapter

References (141)

1. Adger, W.N. (2003) Social capital, collective action, and adaptation to climate change. Economic Geography 79(4), 387-404.
2. Agrawal, A. (2002) Common resources and institutional sustainability. In: Ostrom, E. (ed.) The Drama of the Commons. National Research Council, Washington, DC, pp. 41-85.
3. Agrawal, A. (2008) The Role of local institutions in adaptation to climate change. Ifri Working Paper W08i-3, 45.
4. Agrawal, A. and Gibson, C. (2001) Communities and the Environment: Ethnicity, Gender, and the State in Community-Based Conservation. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey.
5. Angerer, J., Han, G., Fujisaki, I. and Havstad, K.M. (2008) Climate change and ecosystems of Asia with emphasis on Inner Mongolia and Mongolia. Rangelands 30(3), 46-51.
6. Asner, G.P., Elmore, A.J., Olander, L.P., Martin, R.E. and Harris, A.T. (2004) Grazing systems, ecosystem responses, and global change. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 29, 261-299.
7. Augustine, D.J. and McNaughton, S.J. (2006) Interactive effects of ungulate herbivores, soil fertility, and variable rainfall on ecosystem processes in a semi-arid Savanna. Ecosystems 9(8), 1242-1256.
8. Baland, J. and Platteau, J. (1996) Halting Degradation of Natural Resources: Is There a Role for Rural Communities? Clarendon Press, Oxford, UK.
9. Banks, T. (2001) Property rights and the environment in pastoral China: evidence from the field. Development and Change 32(4), 717-740.
10. Banks, T. (2003) Property rights reform in rangeland China: dilemmas on the road to the household ranch. World Development 31(12), 2129-2142.
11. Banks, T., Richard, C., Ping, L. and Zhaoli, Y. (2003) Community-based grassland management in Western China-rationale, pilot project experience, and policy implications. Mountain Research and Development 23(2), 132-140.
12. Bauer, K.M. (2006) Common property and power: insights from a spatial analysis of historical and contemporary pasture boundaries among pastoralists in Central Tibet. Journal of Political Ecology 13, 24-47.
13. Behnke, R.J. (2003) Reconfiguring property rights and land use. In: Kerven, C. (ed.) Prospects for Pastoralism in Kazakstan and Turkmenistan: From State Farms to Private Flocks. Routledge Curzon, New York, pp. 75-107.
14. Berkes, F., Colding, J. and Folke, C. (2003) Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.
15. Berlow, E.L., D'Antonio, C.M. and Swartz, H. (2003) Response of herbs to shrub removal across natural and experimental variation in soil moisture. Ecological Applications 13(5), 1375-1387.
16. Bestelmeyer, B.T., Brown, J.R., Havstad, K.M., Alexander, R., Chavez, G. and Herrick, J. (2003) Development and use of state-and-transition models for rangelands. Journal of Range Management 56(2), 114-126.
17. Beyene, F. (2010) Customary tenure and reciprocal grazing arrangements in Eastern Ethiopia. Development and Change 41(1), 107-129.
18. Bonte, P., Guillaume, H. and Zecchin, F. (1996) Nomads: changing societies and environments. Nature and Resources 32(1), 2-10.
19. Boone, R.B. (2007) Effects of fragmentation on cattle in African savannas under variable precipitation. Landscape Ecology 22, 1355-1369.
20. Boone, R.B., Coughenour, M.B., Galvin, K.A. and Ellis, J.E. (2002) Addressing management questions for Ngorongoro conservation area, Tanzania, using the savanna modelling system. African Journal of Ecology 40(2), 138-150.
21. Briske, D.D., Fuhlendorf, S.D. and Smeins, F.E. (2003) Vegetation dynamics on rangelands: a critique of the current paradigms. Journal of Applied Ecology 40(4), 601-614.
22. Briske, D.D., Fuhlendorf, S.D. and Smeins, F.E. (2006) A unified framework for assessment and application of ecological thresholds. Rangeland Ecology & Management 59(3), 225-236.
23. Bromley, D. (1992) Making the Commons Work: Theory, Practice, and Policy. ICS Press, San Francisco, California.
24. Brosius, P.J., Tsing, A.L. and Zerner, C. (2005) Communities and Conservation: Histories and Politics of Community-Based Natural Resource Management. Alta Mira Press, Walnut Creek, California.
25. BurnSilver, S. (2008) Grassland/rangeland intensification vs extensification debate. In: People and Policy in Rangeland Management-a Glossary of Key Concepts. Science in China Press, Bejing, China, pp. 150-158.
26. Callaway, R.M., Brooker, R.W., Choler, P., Kikvidze, Z., Lortie, C.J., Michalet, R., Paolini, L., Pugnaire, F.I., Newingham, B., Aschehoug, E.T., Armas, C., Kikodze, D. and Cook, B.J. (2002) Positive interactions among Alpine plants increase with stress. Nature 417(6891), 844-848.
27. Campbell, D.J., Gichohi, H., Mwangi, A. and Chege, L. (2000) Land use conflict in Kajiado district, Kenya. Land Use Policy 17(4), 337-348.
28. Chapin, F.S., Carpenter, S.R., Kofinas, G.P., Folke, C., Abel, N., Clark, W.C., Olsson, P., Smith, D.M.S., Walker, B., Young, O.R., Berkes, F., Biggs, R., Grove, J.M., Naylor, R.L., Pinkerton, E., Steffen, W. and Swanson, F.J. (2010) Ecosystem stewardship: sustainability strategies for a rapidly changing planet. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 25(4), 241-249.
29. Child, B. and Lyman, M.W. (2005) Natural Resources and Community Assets: Lessons from Two Continents. Sand County Foundation and The Aspen Institute, Madison, Wisconsin, and Washington
30. DC. Christensen, J.H., Hewitson, A., Busuioc, A., Chen, X., Gao, I., Held, R., Jones, R.K., Kolli, W.T., Kwon, R., Laprise, V., Magaña Rueda, L., Mearns, C.G., Menéndez, J., Räisänen, A., Rinke, A., Sarr, A. and Whetton, P. (2007) Regional climate projections. In: Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K.B., Tignor, M. and Miller, H.L. (eds) Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK and New York.
31. Cincotta, R.P., Zhang, Y. and Zhou, X. (1992) Transhumant Alpine pastoralism in northeastern Qinghai province: an evaluation of livestock population response during China's agrarian economic reform. Nomadic Peoples 30, 3-25.
32. Clark, W.C. and Dickson, N.M. (2003) Sustainability science: the emerging research program. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100(14), 8059-8061.
33. Collins, S.L. (1987) Interaction of disturbances in Tallgrass Prairie-a field experiment. Ecology 68(5), 1243-1250.
34. Collins, S.L., Knapp, A.K., Briggs, J.M., Blair, J.M. and Steinauer, E.M. (1998) Modulation of diversity by grazing and mowing in native Tallgrass Prairie. Science 280(5364), 745-747.
35. Cubasch, U. and Meehl, G.A. (2001) Projections of future climate change. In: Houghton, J.T., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., Van Der Linden, P.J., Dai, X., Maskell, K. and Johnson, C.A. (eds) Climate Change: the Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. University of Cambridge Press, Cambridge, UK.
36. Davidson-Hunt, I.J. and Berkes, F. (2003) Nature and society through the lens of resilience: toward a humanin- ecosystem perspective. In: Berkes, F., Colding, J. and Folke, C. (eds) Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 53-82.
37. Davies, J. (2008) Pastoralism and pastoralists. In: People and Policy in Rangeland Management-a Glossary of Key Concepts. Science in China Press, Beijing, China, pp. 64-74.
38. Deng, X.Z. (2005) Some Issues on Population, Resources, and Environment in the Developing China. Center for Chinese Agricultural Policy, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China. Dyson-Hudson, R. and Dyson-Hudson, N. (1980) Nomadic pastoralism. Annual Review of Anthropology 9, 15-61.
39. Easterling, W.E., Aggarwal, P.K., Batima, P., Brander, K.M., Erda, L., Howden, S.M., Kirilenko, A., Morton, J., Soussana, J.F., Schmidhuber, J. and Tubiello, F.N. (2007) Food, fibre and forest products. In: Canziani, O.F., Parry, M.L., Palutikof, J.P., Van der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (eds) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 273-313.
40. Ellis, J.E. and Swift, D.M. (1988) Stability of African pastoral ecosystems-alternate paradigms and implications for development. Journal of Range Management 41(6), 450-459.
41. FAO (2001) Pastoralism in the New Millennium. Animal Production and Health Paper. Food and Agriculture Organization, 150, Rome, Italy. Fernández-Giménez, M.E. (2002) Spatial and social boundaries and the paradox of pastoral land tenure: a case study from postsocialist Mongolia. Human Ecology 30(1), 49-78.
42. Fernández-Giménez, M.E. and Allen-Diaz, B. (1999) Testing a non-equilibrium model of rangeland vegetation dynamics in Mongolia. Journal of Applied Ecology 36, 871-885.
43. Fernández-Giménez, M.E. and Allen-Diaz, B. (1999) Testing a non-equilibrium model of rangeland vegetation dynamics in Mongolia. Journal of Applied Ecology 36, 871-885.
44. Fernández-Giménez, M.E. and Swift, D.M. (2003) Strategies for sustainable grazing management in the developing world. In: Allsopp, N. et al. (eds) Proceedings of the VIIth International Rangelands Congress, 26 July-1 August 2003, Durban, South Africa, pp. 821-831.
45. Fernández-Giménez, M.E., Kamimura, A. and Batbuyan, B. (2008) Implementing Mongolia's Land Law: Progress and Issues. Final Report to the Central Asian Legal Exchange. Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan.
46. Foggin, J.M. (2008) Depopulating the Tibetan grasslands: national policies and perspectives for the future of Tibetan herders in Qinghai province, China. Mountain Research and Development 28(1), 26-31.
47. Folke, C., Hahn, T., Olsson, P. and Norberg, J. (2005) Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 30, 441-473.
48. Folland, C.K. and Karl, T.R. (2001) Observed climate variability and change. In: Houghton, J.T., Griggs, D.J., Noguer, M., Van Der Linden, P.J., Dai, X., Maskell, K. and Johnson, C.A. (eds) Climate Change 2001: the Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 99-181.
49. Fratkin, E. and Moir, A. (2005) Pastoralists and the state: an editorial introduction. Geography Research Forum 25, 1-13.
50. Fratkin, E. and Roth, E.A. (2005) As Pastoralists Settle: Social, Health, and Economic Consequences of Pastoral Sedentarization in Marsabit District, Kenya. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
51. Friedel, M.H. (1991) Range condition assessment and the concept of thresholds-a viewpoint. Journal of Range Management 44(5), 422-426.
52. Galvin, K.A. (2008) Responses of pastoralists to land fragmentation: social capital, connectivity and resilience. In: Galvin, K.A., Reid, R.S., Behnke, R.H. and Hobbs, N.T. (eds) Fragmentation in Semi-arid and Arid Landscapes. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp. 369-389.
53. Galvin, K.A. (2009) Transitions: pastoralists living with change. Annual Review of Anthropology 38, 185-198.
54. Geist, H.J. and Lambin, E.F. (2004) Dynamic causal patterns of desertification. Bioscience 54(9), 817-829.
55. Gibson, C., McKean, M.A. and Ostrom, E. (2000) People and Forests: Communities, Institutions and Governance. Cambridge University Press, New York.
56. Gunderson, L.H. and Holling, C.S. (2002) Panarchy. Island Press, Washington, DC.
57. Gunin, P.D., Vostrokova, E.A., Dorofeyuk, N.I., Tarasov, P.E. and Black, C.C. (1999) Vegetation Dynamics of Mongolia. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands.
58. Harris, R.B. (2010) Rangeland degradation on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau: a review of the evidence of its magnitude and causes. Journal of Arid Environments 74(1), 1-12.
59. Havstad, K.M., Peters, D.P.C., Skaggs, R., Brown, J., Bestelmeyer, B., Fredrickson, E., Herrick, J. and Wright, J. (2007) Ecological services to and from rangelands of the United States. Ecological Economics 64(2), 261-268.
60. Heisler-White, J.L., Blair, J.M., Kelly, E.F., Harmoney, K. and Knapp, A.K. (2009) Contingent productivity responses to more extreme rainfall regimes across a grassland biome. Global Change Biology 15(12), 2894-2904.
61. Hilbig, W. (1995) The Vegetation of Mongolia. SPB Academic Publishing, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Ho, P. (2000) China's rangelands under stress: a comparative study of pasture commons in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region. Development and Change 31(2), 385-412.
62. Ho, P. (2001) Rangeland degradation in north China revisited: a preliminary statistical analysis to validate non-equilibrium range ecology. Journal of Development Studies 37(3), 99-133.
63. Hobbs, N.T., Galvin, K.A., Stokes, C.J., Lackett, J.M., Ash, A.J., Boone, R.B., Reid, R.S. and Thornton, P.K. (2008) Fragmentation of rangelands: implications for humans, animals, and landscapes. Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimensions 18(4), 776-785.
64. Holling, C.S. and Meffe, G.K. (1996) Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management. Conservation Biology 10, 328-337.
65. Homewood, K., Trench, P.C. and Kristjanson, P. (2009) Staying Maasai? Pastoral livelihoods, diversification and the role of wildlife in development. In: Homewood, K., Kristjanson, P. and Trench, P.C. (eds) Staying Maasai? Livelihoods, Conservation and Development in East African Rangelands. Springer, New York, pp. 369-408.
66. Huxman, T.E., Smith, M.D., Fay, P.A., Knapp, A.K., Shaw, M.R., Loik, M.E., Smith, S.D., Tissue, D.T., Zak, J.C., Weltzin, J.F., Pockman, W.T., Sala, O.E., Haddad, B.M., Harte, J., Koch, G.W., Schwinning, S., Small, E.E. and Williams, D.G. (2004) Convergence across biomes to a common rain-use efficiency. Nature 429, 651-654.
67. Illius, A.W. and O'Connor, T.G. (1999) On the relevance of nonequilibrium concepts to arid and semiarid grazing systems. Ecological Applications 9, 798-813.
68. Illius, A.W. and O'Connor, T.G. (2000) Resource heterogeneity and ungulate population dynamics. Oikos 89, 283-294.
69. IPCC (2007) Summary for policymakers. In: Parry, M.L., Canziani, O.F., Palutikof, J.P., Van Der Linden, P.J. and Hanson, C.E. (eds) Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, pp. 7-22.
70. Keen, M. and Mahanty, S. (2006) Learning in sustainable natural resource management: challenges and opportunities in the Pacific. Society and Natural Resources 19(6), 497-513.
71. Kellert, S.R., Mehta, J.N., Ebbin, S.A. and Lichtenfeld, L.L. (2000) Community natural resource management: promise, rhetoric, and reality. Society and Natural Resources 13(8), 705-715.
72. Kimani, K. and Pickard, J. (1998) Recent trends and implications of group ranch sub-division and fragmentation in Kajiado district, Kenya. Geographical Journal 164(2), 202-213.
73. Klein, J.A., Harte, J. and Zhao, X.Q. (2004) Experimental warming causes large and rapid species loss, dampened by simulated grazing, on the Tibetan Plateau. Ecology Letters 7(12), 1170-1179.
74. Klein, J.A., Harte, J. and Zhao, X.Q. (2007) Experimental warming, not grazing, decreases rangeland quality on the Tibetan Plateau. Ecological Applications 17(2), 541-557.
75. Klein, J.A., Harte, J. and Zhao, X.Q. (2008) Decline in medicinal and forage species with warming is mediated by plant traits on the Tibetan Plateau. Ecosystems 11(5), 775-789.
76. Klein, J.A., Yeh, E.T., Bump, J.K., Nyima, Y. and Hopping, K.A. (2011) Coordinating environmental protection and climate change adaptation policy in resource-dependent communities: a case study from the Tibetan Plateau. In: Ford, J.D. and Ford, L.B. (eds) Climate Change Adaptation in Developed Nations. Springer, New York, in press.
77. Knapp, A.K., Burns, C.E., Fynn, R.W.S., Kirkman, K.P., Morris, C.D. and Smith, M.D. (2006) Convergence and contingency in production-precipitation relationships in North American and South African C-4 Grasslands. Oecologia 149, 456-464.
78. Lam, W.F. (1998) Governing Irrigation Systems in Nepal: Institutions, Infrastructure, and Collective Action. ICS Press, San Francisco, California.
79. Lane, C.R. (1998) Custodians of the Commons: Pastoral Land Tenure in East and West Africa. Earthscan Publications, London, UK.
80. Lee, R.G. and Field, D.R. (2005) Communities and Forests: Where People Meet the Land. Oregon State University Press, Corvallis, Oregon.
81. Lesorogol, C.K. (2008) Land privatization and pastoralist well-being in Kenya. Development and Change 39(2), 309-331.
82. Li, W.J., Ali, S.H. and Zhang, Q. (2007) Property rights and grassland degradation: a study of the Xilingol pasture, Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Environmental Management 85, 461-470.
83. Little, P.D., McPeak, J., Barrett, C.B. and Kristjanson, P. (2008) Challenging orthodoxies: understanding poverty in pastoral areas of East Africa. Development and Change 39, 587-611.
84. Liu, J.G., Dietz, T., Carpenter, S.R., Alberti, M., Folke, C., Moran, E., Pell, A.N., Deadman, P., Kratz, T., Lubchenco, J., Ostrom, E., Ouyang, Z., Provencher, W., Redman, C.L., Schneider, S.H. and Taylor, W.W. (2007) Complexity of coupled human and natural systems. Science 317(5844), 1513-1516.
85. Luers, A.L. (2005) The surface of vulnerability: an analytical framework for examining environmental change. Global Environmental Change-Human and Policy Dimensions 15(3), 214-223.
86. Lynam, T.J.P. and Smith, M.S. (2004) Monitoring in a complex world-seeking slow variables, a scaled focus, and speedier learning. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 21(2), 69-78.
87. McCabe, J.T. (1990) Turkana pastoralism: a case against the Tragedy of the Commons. Human Ecology 18, 81-103.
88. McCabe, J.T. (2003a) Sustainability and livelihood diversification among the Maasai of Northern Tanzania. Human Organization 62(3), 100-111.
89. McCabe, J.T. (2003b) Disequilibrial ecosystems and livelihood diversification among the Maasai of Northern Tanzania: implications for conservation policy in Eastern Africa. Nomadic Peoples 7(1), 74-91.
90. McCay, B. and Acheson, J. (1987) The Question of the Commons: the Culture and Ecology of Communal Resources. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, Arizona.
91. McPeak, J. and Little, P.D. (2005) Cursed if you do, cursed if you don't: the contradictory processes of sedentarization in northern Kenya. In: Fratkin, E. and Roth, E.A. (eds) As Pastoralists Settle. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp. 87-104.
92. Marin, A. (2008) Between cash cows and golden calves: adaptations of Mongolian pastoralism in the 'Age of the Market'. Nomadic Peoples 12, 75-101.
93. Marin-Yaseli, M.L. and Martinez, T.L. (2003) Competing for meadows-a case study on tourism and livestock farming in the Spanish Pyrenees. Mountain Research and Development 23(2), 169-176.
94. MEA (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) (2005) Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Desertification Synthesis. World Resources Institute, Washington, DC.
95. Meffe, G.K., Nielson, L.A., Knight, R.L. and Schenborn, D.A. (2002) Ecosystem Management: Adaptive, Community-Based Conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC.
96. Meyer, N. (2006) Desertification and restoration of grasslands in Inner Mongolia. Journal of Forestry 104(6), 328-331.
97. Mwangi, E. (2007) The puzzle of group ranch subdivision in Kenya's Maasailand. Development and Change 38(5), 889-910.
98. Nelson, D.R., Adger, W.N. and Brown, K. (2007) Adaptation to environmental change: contributions of a resilience framework. Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32, 395-419.
99. Neumann, R.P. (1998) Imposing Wilderness: Struggles over Livelihood and Nature Preservation in Africa. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
100. Neupert, R.F. (1999) Population, nomadic pastoralism and the environment in the Mongolian Plateau. Population and Environment 20(5), 413-441.
101. Niamir-Fuller, M. (1999) Managing Mobility in African Rangelands: the Legitimization of Transhumance. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.
102. Nicholls, N. and Wong, K.K. (1990) Dependence of rainfall variability on mean rainfall, latitude, and the southern oscillation. Journal of Climate 3(1), 163-170.
103. Nicholson, S.E. (2002) What are the key components of climate as a driver of desertification? In: Reynolds, J.F. and Smith, S.M. (eds) Global Desertification-Do Humans Cause Deserts? Dahlem University Press, Kothen, Germany, pp. 41-55.
104. Niu, T., Chen, L.X. and Zhou, Z.J. (2004) The characteristics of climate change over the Tibetan Plateau in the last 40 years and the detection of climatic jumps. Advances in Atmospheric Sciences 21(2), 193-203.
105. Nixon, F. and Walters, B. (2006) Privatization, income distribution and poverty: the Mongolian experience. World Development 34, 1557-1579.
106. Noy-Meir, I. (1974) Desert ecosystems: higher trophic levels. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 5, 195-214.
107. Oechel, W.C., Vourlitis, G.L., Hastings, S.J., Ault, R.P. and Bryant, P. (1998) The effects of water table manipulation and elevated temperature on the net CO2 flux of wet sedge Tundra ecosystems. Global Change Biology 4(1), 77-90.
108. Ostrom, E. (1990) Governing the Commons: the Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Ostrom, E. and Mwangi, E. (2008) Common pool resources and rangelands. In: People and Policy in Rangeland Management-a Glossary of Key Concepts. Science in China Press, Beijing, China, pp. 160-168.
109. Peluso, N.L. (1992) Rich Forests, Poor People: Resource Control and Resistance in Java. University of California Press, Berkeley, California.
110. Peters, D.P.C., Pielke Sr, R.A., Bestelmeyer, B.T., Allen, C.D., Munson-McGee, S. and Havstad, K.M. (2004) Cross-scale interactions, nonlinearities, and forecasting catastrophic events. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 101(42), 15130-15135.
111. Pinkerton, E. (1989) Cooperative Management of Local Fisheries: New Directions for Improved Management and Community Development. University of British Columbia Press, Vancouver, Canada.
112. Plummer, R. and FitzGibbon, J. (2006) People matter: the importance of social capital in the co-management of natural resources. Natural Resources Forum 30(1), 51-62.
113. Pretty, J. and Ward, H. (2001) Social capital and the environment. World Development 29(2), 209-227.
114. Putnam, R. (2000) Bowling Alone: the Collapse and Revival of American Community. Simon and Schuster, New York. Reid, R.S., Galvin, K.A. and Kruska, R.L. (2008) Global significance of extensive grazing lands and pastoral societies: an introduction. In: Galvin, K.A., Reid, R.S., Behnke, R.H. and Hobbs, N.T. (eds) Fragmentation in Semi-Arid and Arid Landscapes: Consequences for Human and Natural Systems. Springer, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, pp. 1-24.
115. Reynolds, J.F. and Smith, S.D.M. (2002) Do humans cause deserts? In: Reynolds, J.F. and Smith, S.D.M. (eds) Global Desertification: Do Humans Cause Deserts? Dahlem University Press, Berlin, Germany, pp. 1-21.
116. Reynolds, J.F., Smith, S.D.M., Lambin, E.F., Turner, B.L., Mortimore, M., Batterbury, S.P.J., Downing, T.E., Dowlatabadi, H., Fernandez, R.J., Herrick, J.E., Huber-Sannwald, E., Jiang, H., Leemans, R., Lynam, T., Maestre, F.T., Ayarza, M. and Walker, B. (2007) Global desertification: building a science for dryland development. Science 316(5826), 847-851.
117. Rogers, S. and Wang, M. (2006) Environmental resettlement and social dis/re-articulation in Inner Mongolia, China. Population and Environment 28(1), 41-68.
118. Sala, O.E., Parton, W.J., Joyce, L.A. and Lauenroth, W.K. (1988) Primary production of the central grassland region of the United States. Ecology 69, 40-45.
119. Sandford, S. (1983) Management of Pastoral Development in the Third World. Wiley, Chichester, UK.
120. Schlesinger, W.H., Reynolds, J.F., Cunningham, G.L., Huenneke, L.F., Jarrell, W.M., Virginia, R.A. and Whitford, W.G. (1990) Biological feedbacks in global desertification. Science 247, 1043-1048.
121. Scoones, I. (1994) Living with Uncertainty: New Directions in Pastoral Development in Africa. Intermediate Technology Publications, London, UK.
122. Scott, J. (1998) Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
123. Shaw, R.M., Zavaleta, E.S., Chiariello, N.R., Cleland, E.E., Mooney, H.A. and Field, C.B. (2002) Grassland responses to global environmental changes suppressed by elevated CO2. Science 298, 1987-1990.
124. Sneath, D. (2003) Land use, the environment and development in post-socialist Mongolia. Oxford Development Studies 31(4), 441-459.
125. State Council (2002) Some Suggestions Regarding Strengthening Grassland Protection and Construction. State Council Circular 19.
126. Stringham, T.K., Krueger, W.C. and Shaver, P.L. (2003) State and transition modeling: an ecological process approach. Journal of Range Management 56(2), 106-113.
127. Stumpp, M., Wesche, K., Retzer, V. and Miehe, G. (2005) Impact of grazing livestock and distance from water sources on soil fertility in Southern Mongolia. Mountain Research and Development 25(3), 244-251.
128. Thompson, D.M., Serneels, S., Kaelo, D. and Trench, P.C. (2009) Maasai Mara-land privatization and wildlife decline: can conservation pay its way? In: Homewood, K., Kristjanson, P. and Trench, P. (eds) Staying Maasai: Livelihoods, Conservation and Development in East African Rangelands. Springer, London, UK, pp. 77-114.
129. Todd, S.W. and Hoffman, M.T. (1999) A fence-line contrast reveals effects of heavy grazing on plant diversity and community composition in Namaqualand, South Africa. Plant Ecology 142(1), 2169-2178.
130. Tong, C., Wu, J., Yong, S., Yang, J. and Yong, W. (2004) A landscape-scale assessment of steppe degradation in the Xilin River Basin, Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Arid Environments 59(1), 133-149.
131. Turner, B.L., Kasperson, R.E., Matson, P.A., McCarthy, J.J., Corell, R.W., Christensen, L., Eckley, N., Kasperson, J.X., Luers, A., Martello, M.L., Polsky, C., Pulsipher, A. and Schiller, A. (2003) A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100(14), 8074-8079.
132. Turner, B.L., Lambin, E.F. and Reenberg, A. (2007) The emergence of land change science for global environmental change and sustainability. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 104(52), 20,666-20,671.
133. Vetter, S. (2005) Rangelands at equilibrium and non-equilibrium: recent developments in the debate. Journal of Arid Environments 62(2), 321-341.
134. Wade, R. (1994) Village Republics: Economic Conditions for Collective Action in South India. ICS Press, San Francisco, California.
135. Wade, R. (1994) Village Republics: Economic Conditions for Collective Action in South India. ICS Press, San Francisco, California.
136. Walker, B. and Salt, D. (2006) Resilience Thinking: Sustaining Ecosystems and People in a Changing World. Island Press, Washington, DC. Western, D. and Wright, R.M. (1994) Natural Connections. Island Press, Washington, DC.
137. Westoby, M., Walker, B. and Noy-Meir, I. (1989) Opportunistic management for rangelands not at equilibrium. Journal of Range Management 42, 266-274.
138. Wilkinson, K.P. (1991) The Community in Rural America. Greenwood Press and the Rural Sociological Society, Westport, Connecticut. Williams, D.M. (1996) Grassland enclosures: catalyst of land degradation in Inner Mongolia. Human Organization 55(3), 307-313.
139. Yeh, E.T. (2005) Green governmentality and pastoralism in Western China: converting pastures to grasslands. Nomadic Peoples 9(1), 9-29.
140. Yeh, E.T. (2009) Greening Western China: a critical view. Geoforum 40(5), 884-894.
141. Zhang, Y.S., Li, T. and Wang, B. (2004) Decadal change of the spring snow depth over the Tibetan Plateau: the associated circulation and influence on the East Asian Summer Monsoon. Journal of Climate 17(14), 2780-2793.