Healthcare disparities in critical illness

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 41, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 2784-2793

  Soto, Graciela J ^a   Martin, Greg S ^b   Gong, Michelle Ng ^a,c  

^a Jay B Langer Critical Care System   (United States)

^b EMORY UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^c ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Critical illness; Health disparities; Organ dysfunction; Outcomes

Indexed keywords

ACUTE LUNG INJURY; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ALCOHOL ABUSE; ARTICLE; CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM DEPRESSION; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; CLINICAL STUDY; COMORBIDITY; CRITICAL ILLNESS; CRITICALLY ILL PATIENT; CULTURAL FACTOR; DIABETES MELLITUS; DISEASE COURSE; ETHNIC DIFFERENCE; GENDER; GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY; HEALTH BEHAVIOR; HEALTH CARE ACCESS; HEALTH CARE DELIVERY; HEALTH CARE DISPARITY; HEART ARREST; HEMODIALYSIS; HUMAN; INTENSIVE CARE; KIDNEY FAILURE; MEDLINE; MORTALITY; PNEUMONIA; PREVALENCE; PREVENTIVE HEALTH SERVICE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RACISM; SEPSIS; SOCIOECONOMICS; UNITED STATES; VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM;

EID: 84889237222     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: 15300293     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3182a84a43     Document Type: Article

References (142)

1. Wong MD, Shapiro MF, Boscardin WJ, et al. Contribution of major diseases to disparities in mortality. N Engl J Med 2002; 347:1585-1592 (Pubitemid 35315840)
2. Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR (Eds): Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care. Washington DC, The National Academies Press, 2003
3. Yergan J, Flood AB, Diehr P, et al. Relationship between patient source of payment and the intensity of hospital services. Med Care 1988; 26:1111-1114
4. Ferraro KF, Shippee TP: Black and white chains of risk for hospitalization over 20 years. J Health Soc Behav 2008; 49:193-207
5. Healthy People 2010. Available at: http://www.healthypeople.org/. Accessed March 20, 2012
6. HR 3590 (111th): Patient protection and affordable care act. Available at: http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/111/hr3590/text. Accessed March 29, 2013
7. Institute of Medicine (U.S.): Committee on Comparative Effectiveness Research Prioritization. Initial National Priorities for Comparative Effectiveness Research. Washington, DC, National Academic Press, 2009
8. Foreman MG, Willsie SK: Health care disparities in critical illness. Clin Chest Med 2006; 27:473-486, vii (Pubitemid 44118534)
9. Martin GS: Healthcare disparities in critically ill patients. In: Yearbook of Intensive Care and Emergency Medicine. Vincent JL (Ed). Berlin, Germany, Springer-Verlag, 2006, pp 778-785
10. Kaplan JB, Bennett T: Use of race and ethnicity in biomedical publication. JAMA 2003; 289:2709-2716 (Pubitemid 37430142)
11. Williams DR: Race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status: Measurement and methodological issues. Int J Health Serv 1996; 26:483-505 (Pubitemid 26257182)
12. Laws MB, Heckscher RA: Racial and ethnic identification practices in public health data systems in New England. Public Health Rep 2002; 117:50-61 (Pubitemid 35204542)
13. Martin GS, Mannino DM, Eaton S, et al. The epidemiology of sepsis in the United States from 1979 through 2000. N Engl J Med 2003; 348:1546-1554 (Pubitemid 36437931)
14. Angus DC, Linde-Zwirble WT, Lidicker J, et al. Epidemiology of severe sepsis in the United States: Analysis of incidence, outcome, and associated costs of care. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1303-1310 (Pubitemid 32641789)
15. Dombrovskiy VY, Martin AA, Sunderram J, et al. Facing the challenge: Decreasing case fatality rates in severe sepsis despite increasing hospitalizations. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:2555-2562 (Pubitemid 41682108)
16. Cooke CR, Erickson SE, Eisner MD, et al. Trends in the incidence of noncardiogenic acute respiratory failure: The role of race. Crit Care Med 2012; 40:1532-1538
17. Horlander KT, Mannino DM, Leeper KV: Pulmonary embolism mortality in the United States, 1979-1998: An analysis using multiple-cause mortality data. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:1711-1717 (Pubitemid 36898960)
18. White RH, Zhou H, Murin S, et al. Effect of ethnicity and gender on the incidence of venous thromboembolism in a diverse population in California in 1996. Thromb Haemost 2005; 93:298-305 (Pubitemid 40253735)
19. Silverstein MD, Heit JA, Mohr DN, et al. Trends in the incidence of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism: A 25-year population-based study. Arch Intern Med 1998; 158:585-593 (Pubitemid 28144815)
20. Anderson FA Jr, Wheeler HB, Goldberg RJ, et al. A population-based perspective of the hospital incidence and case-fatality rates of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. The Worcester DVT Study. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151:933-938
21. Cushman M, Tsai A, Heckbert SR, et al. Incidence rates, case fatality, and recurrence rates of deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolus: The Longitudinal Investigation of Thromboembolism Etiology (LITE) [abstract]. Thromb Haemost 2001; 86(Suppl 1):OC2349
22. Kniffin WD Jr, Baron JA, Barrett J, et al. The epidemiology of diagnosed pulmonary embolism and deep venous thrombosis in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154:861-866 (Pubitemid 24135768)
23. Cushman M, Tsai AW, White RH, et al. Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in two cohorts: The longitudinal investigation of thromboembolism etiology. Am J Med 2004; 117:19-25 (Pubitemid 38801482)
24. McRae S, Tran H, Schulman S, et al. Effect of patient's sex on risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism: A meta-analysis. Lancet 2006; 368:371-378 (Pubitemid 44108120)
25. Kyrle PA, Minar E, Bialonczyk C, et al. The risk of recurrent venous thromboembolism in men and women. N Engl J Med 2004; 350:2558-2563
26. Agnelli G, Becattini C, Prandoni P: Recurrent venous thromboembolism in men and women. N Engl J Med 2004; 351:2015-2018 (Pubitemid 39447146)
27. Sands KE, Bates DW, Lanken PN, et al. Academic Medical Center Consortium Sepsis Project Working Group: Epidemiology of sepsis syndrome in 8 academic medical centers. JAMA 1997; 278:234-240
28. Sundararajan V, Macisaac CM, Presneill JJ, et al. Epidemiology of sepsis in Victoria, Australia. Crit Care Med 2005; 33:71-80 (Pubitemid 40116539)
29. Bernard GR, Vincent JL, Laterre PF, et al. Recombinant human protein C Worldwide Evaluation in Severe Sepsis (PROWESS) study group: Efficacy and safety of recombinant human activated protein C for severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:699-709
30. Annane D, Sébille V, Charpentier C, et al. Effect of treatment with low doses of hydrocortisone and fludrocortisone on mortality in patients with septic shock. JAMA 2002; 288:862-871
31. Barnato AE, Alexander SL, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. Racial variation in the incidence, care, and outcomes of severe sepsis: Analysis of population, patient, and hospital characteristics. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 177:279-284 (Pubitemid 351198370)
32. Becker LB, Han BH, Meyer PM, et al. Racial differences in the incidence of cardiac arrest and subsequent survival. The CPR Chicago Project. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:600-606 (Pubitemid 23244810)
33. Galea S, Blaney S, Nandi A, et al. Explaining racial disparities in incidence of and survival from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Am J Epidemiol 2007; 166:534-543 (Pubitemid 47283631)
34. Ehlenbach WJ, Barnato AE, Curtis JR, et al. Epidemiologic study of in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the elderly. N Engl J Med 2009; 361:22-31
35. Erickson S, Cooke CR, Eisner MD, et al. Effect of race on the incidence of acute lung injury. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 179:A5096
36. Heit JA, Beckman MG, Bockenstedt PL, et al. CDC Thrombosis and Hemostasis Centers Research and Prevention Network: Comparison of characteristics from White-and Black-Americans with venous thromboembolism: A cross-sectional study. Am J Hematol 2010; 85:467-471
37. Stein PD, Hull RD, Patel KC, et al. Venous thromboembolic disease: Comparison of the diagnostic process in blacks and whites. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:1843-1848 (Pubitemid 36960935)
38. Stein PD, Hull RD, Patel KC, et al. Venous thromboembolic disease: Comparison of the diagnostic process in men and women. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163:1689-1694 (Pubitemid 36898957)
39. Oberholzer A, Keel M, Zellweger R, et al. Incidence of septic complications and multiple organ failure in severely injured patients is sex specific. J Trauma 2000; 48:932-937 (Pubitemid 30435962)
40. Esper AM, Moss M, Lewis CA, et al. The role of infection and comorbidity: Factors that influence disparities in sepsis. Crit Care Med 2006; 34:2576-2582 (Pubitemid 44413055)
41. Sørensen TI, Nielsen GG, Andersen PK, et al. Genetic and environmental influences on premature death in adult adoptees. N Engl J Med 1988; 318:727-732 (Pubitemid 18090256)
42. Ness RB, Haggerty CL, Harger G, et al. Differential distribution of allelic variants in cytokine genes among African Americans and White Americans. Am J Epidemiol 2004; 160:1033-1038 (Pubitemid 39557455)
43. Yim JJ, Ding L, Schäffer AA, et al. A microsatellite polymorphism in intron 2 of human Toll-like receptor 2 gene: Functional implications and racial differences. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2004; 40: 163-169 (Pubitemid 38249541)
44. Ferwerda B, McCall MB, Alonso S, et al. TLR4 polymorphisms, infectious diseases, and evolutionary pressure during migration of modern humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2007; 104:16645-16650 (Pubitemid 350211070)
45. Gong MN, Wei Z, Xu LL, et al. Polymorphism in the surfactant protein-B gene, gender, and the risk of direct pulmonary injury and ARDS. Chest 2004; 125:203-211 (Pubitemid 38114584)
46. Schröder J, Kahlke V, Book M, et al. Gender differences in sepsis: Genetically determined? Shock 2000; 14:307-310
47. Watanabe E, Buchman TG, Hirasawa H, et al. Association between lymphotoxin-alpha (tumor necrosis factor-beta) intron polymorphism and predisposition to severe sepsis is modified by gender and age. Crit Care Med 2010; 38:181-193
48. Schröder J, Kahlke V, Staubach KH, et al. Gender differences in human sepsis. Arch Surg 1998; 133:1200-1205 (Pubitemid 28516271)
49. Hubacek JA, Stüber F, Fröhlich D, et al. Gene variants of the bactericidal/permeability increasing protein and lipopolysaccharide binding protein in sepsis patients: Gender-specific genetic predisposition to sepsis. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:557-561 (Pubitemid 32225297)
50. Gao L, Grant A, Halder I, et al. Novel polymorphisms in the myosin light chain kinase gene confer risk for acute lung injury. Am J Respir Cell Mol Biol 2006; 34:487-495
51. Christie JD, Ma SF, Aplenc R, et al. Variation in the myosin light chain kinase gene is associated with development of acute lung injury after major trauma. Crit Care Med 2008; 36:2794-2800
52. Gao L, Barnes KC: Recent advances in genetic predisposition to clinical acute lung injury. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2009; 296:L713-L725
53. Barnes KC: Genetic determinants and ethnic disparities in sepsisassociated acute lung injury. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2005; 2:195-201 (Pubitemid 41500845)
54. Meyer NJ, Garcia JG: Wading into the genomic pool to unravel acute lung injury genetics. Proc Am Thorac Soc 2007; 4:69-76 (Pubitemid 46067565)
55. Garcia JG, Moreno Vinasco L: Genomic insights into acute inflammatory lung injury. Am J Physiol Lung Cell Mol Physiol 2006; 291:L1113-L1117 (Pubitemid 44904517)
56. Yende S, Kammerer CM, Angus DC: Genetics and proteomics: Deciphering gene association studies in critical illness. Crit Care 2006; 10:227
57. Tang Y, Sampson B, Pack S, et al. Ethnic differences in out-of-hospital fatal pulmonary embolism. Circulation 2011; 123:2219-2225
58. Dowling NF, Austin H, Dilley A, et al. The epidemiology of venous thromboembolism in Caucasians and African-Americans: The GATE Study. J Thromb Haemost 2003; 1:80-87
59. Dombrovskiy VY, Martin AA, Sunderram J, et al. Occurrence and outcomes of sepsis: Influence of race. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:763-768 (Pubitemid 46407788)
60. Braveman PA, Cubbin C, Egerter S, et al. Socioeconomic status in health research: One size does not fit all. JAMA 2005; 294:2879-2888 (Pubitemid 41785869)
61. Krieger N, Chen JT, Waterman PD, et al. Painting a truer picture of US socioeconomic and racial/ethnic health inequalities: The Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. Am J Public Health 2005; 95:312-323 (Pubitemid 40179832)
62. Epstein AM, Ayanian JZ: Racial disparities in medical care. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1471-1473
63. Collins K, Hughes DL, Doty M, et al. Diverse Communities, Common Concerns: Assessing Health Care Quality for Minority Americans. Findings from the Commonwealth Fund 2001 Health Care Quality Survey. New York, The Commonwealth Fund, 2002
64. Williams DR: Race, socioeconomic status, and health. The added effects of racism and discrimination. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1999; 896:173-188
65. Krieger N, Chen JT, Ebel G: Can we monitor socioeconomic inequalities in health? A survey of U.S. health departments' data collection and reporting practices. Public Health Rep 1997; 112:481-491
66. Williams DR: Missed opportunities in monitoring socioeconomic status. Public Health Rep 1997; 112:492-494
67. Krieger N, Fee E: Social class: The missing link in U.S. health data. Int J Health Serv 1994; 24:25-44
68. Krieger N, Waterman P, Chen JT, et al. Zip code caveat: Bias due to spatiotemporal mismatches between zip codes and US censusdefined geographic areas-the Public Health Disparities Geocoding Project. Am J Public Health 2002; 92:1100-1102 (Pubitemid 34700971)
69. Soobader M, LeClere FB, Hadden W, et al. Using aggregate geographic data to proxy individual socioeconomic status: Does size matter? Am J Public Health 2001; 91:632-636 (Pubitemid 32245307)
70. Lillie-Blanton M, Martinez RM, Taylor AK, et al. Latina and African American women: Continuing disparities in health. Int J Health Serv 1993; 23:555-584
71. Kim C, Diez Roux AV, Hofer TP, et al. Area socioeconomic status and mortality after coronary artery bypass graft surgery: The role of hospital volume. Am Heart J 2007; 154:385-390 (Pubitemid 47079016)
72. Rao SV, Schulman KA, Curtis LH, et al. Socioeconomic status and outcome following acute myocardial infarction in elderly patients. Arch Intern Med 2004; 164:1128-1133 (Pubitemid 38668993)
73. Williams DR, Sternthal M: Understanding racial-ethnic disparities in health: Sociological contributions. J Health Soc Behav 2010; 51(Suppl):S15-S27
74. Shavers VL, Fagan P, Jones D, et al. The state of research on racial/ethnic discrimination in the receipt of health care. Am J Public Health 2012; 102:953-966
75. Massey DS, Denton NA: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1993
76. Williams DR, Collins C: Racial residential segregation: A fundamental cause of racial disparities in health. Public Health Rep 2001; 116:404-416 (Pubitemid 34579067)
77. Mayr FB, Yende S, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. Infection rate and acute organ dysfunction risk as explanations for racial differences in severe sepsis. JAMA 2010; 303:2495-2503
78. Opal SM, Cohen J: Clinical gram-positive sepsis: Does it fundamentally differ from gram-negative bacterial sepsis? Crit Care Med 1999; 27:1608-1616 (Pubitemid 29406956)
79. Alberti C, Brun-Buisson C, Goodman SV, et al. European Sepsis Group: Influence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis on outcome of critically ill infected patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168:77-84 (Pubitemid 37046636)
80. Guidet B, Aegerter P, Gauzit R, et al. CUB-Réa Study Group: Incidence and impact of organ dysfunctions associated with sepsis. Chest 2005; 127:942-951 (Pubitemid 40775528)
81. Williams JF, Zimmerman JE, Wagner DP, et al. African-American and white patients admitted to the intensive care unit: Is there a difference in therapy and outcome? Crit Care Med 1995; 23:626-636
82. Erickson SE, Vasilevskis EE, Kuzniewicz MW, et al. The effect of race and ethnicity on outcomes among patients in the intensive care unit: A comprehensive study involving socioeconomic status and resuscitation preferences. Crit Care Med 2011; 39:429-435
83. Erickson SE, Shlipak MG, Martin GS, et al. National Institutes of Health National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome Network: Racial and ethnic disparities in mortality from acute lung injury. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:1-6
84. Mayr FB, Yende S, D'Angelo G, et al. Do hospitals provide lower quality of care to black patients for pneumonia? Crit Care Med 2010; 38:759-765
85. Chan PS, Nichol G, Krumholz HM, et al. American Heart Association National Registry of Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (NRCPR) Investigators: Racial differences in survival after in-hospital cardiac arrest. JAMA 2009; 302:1195-1201
86. Wilde ET, Robbins LS, Pressley JC: Racial differences in out-ofhospital cardiac arrest survival and treatment. Emerg Med J 2012; 29:415-419
87. Ebell MH, Afonso AM: Pre-arrest predictors of failure to survive after in-hospital cardiopulmonary resuscitation: A meta-analysis. Fam Pract 2011; 28:505-515
88. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/mmwr-wk/wk-cvol.html. Accessed March 28, 2013
89. Fisman DN, Abrutyn E, Spaude KA, et al. Prior pneumococcal vaccination is associated with reduced death, complications, and length of stay among hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 42:1093-1101
90. Johnstone J, Marrie TJ, Eurich DT, et al. Effect of pneumococcal vaccination in hospitalized adults with community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167:1938-1943 (Pubitemid 47606632)
91. de Wit M, Best AM, Gennings C, et al. Alcohol use disorders increase the risk for mechanical ventilation in medical patients. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007; 31:1224-1230 (Pubitemid 46934397)
92. O'Brien JM Jr, Lu B, Ali NA, et al. Alcohol dependence is independently associated with sepsis, septic shock, and hospital mortality among adult intensive care unit patients. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:345-350 (Pubitemid 46148520)
93. Fernández-Solá J, Junqué A, Estruch R, et al. High alcohol intake as a risk and prognostic factor for community-acquired pneumonia. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155:1649-1654
94. Bercault N, Boulain T: Mortality rate attributable to ventilatorassociated nosocomial pneumonia in an adult intensive care unit: A prospective case-control study. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:2303-2309 (Pubitemid 34038163)
95. Tonnesen H, Kehlet H: Preoperative alcoholism and postoperative morbidity. Br J Surg 1999; 86:869-874 (Pubitemid 29333008)
96. Moss M, Bucher B, Moore FA, et al. The role of chronic alcohol abuse in the development of acute respiratory distress syndrome in adults. JAMA 1996; 275:50-54 (Pubitemid 26004256)
97. Moss M, Parsons PE, Steinberg KP, et al. Chronic alcohol abuse is associated with an increased incidence of acute respiratory distress syndrome and severity of multiple organ dysfunction in patients with septic shock. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:869-877 (Pubitemid 36379598)
98. Yergan J, Flood AB, LoGerfo JP, et al. Relationship between patient race and the intensity of hospital services. Med Care 1987; 25:592-603 (Pubitemid 17111897)
99. Shippee TP, Ferraro KF, Thorpe RJ: Racial disparity in access to cardiac intensive care over 20 years. Ethn Health 2011; 16: 145-165
100. Pines JM, Russell Localio A, Hollander JE: Racial disparities in emergency department length of stay for admitted patients in the United States. Acad Emerg Med 2009; 16:403-410
101. Rapoport J, Teres D, Steingrub J, et al. Patient characteristics and ICU organizational factors that influence frequency of pulmonary artery catheterization. JAMA 2000; 283:2559-2567 (Pubitemid 30324199)
102. Lane-Fall MB, Iwashyna TJ, Cooke CR, et al. Insurance and racial differences in long-term acute care utilization after critical illness. Crit Care Med 2012; 40:1143-1149
103. Jha AK, Orav EJ, Li Z, et al. Concentration and quality of hospitals that care for elderly black patients. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167:1177-1182 (Pubitemid 46919821)
104. Amarasingham R, Plantinga L, Diener-West M, et al. Clinical information technologies and inpatient outcomes: A multiple hospital study. Arch Intern Med 2009; 169:108-114
105. Frei CR, Attridge RT, Mortensen EM, et al. Guideline-concordant antibiotic use and survival among patients with community-acquired pneumonia admitted to the intensive care unit. Clin Ther 2010; 32:293-299
106. Frei CR, Mortensen EM, Copeland LA, et al. Disparities of care for African-Americans and Caucasians with community-acquired pneumonia: A retrospective cohort study. BMC Health Serv Res 2010; 10:143
107. Hasnain-Wynia R, Baker DW, Nerenz D, et al. Disparities in health care are driven by where minority patients seek care: Examination of the hospital quality alliance measures. Arch Intern Med 2007; 167:1233-1239 (Pubitemid 46998493)
108. Hausmann LR, Ibrahim SA, Mehrotra A, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in pneumonia treatment and mortality. Med Care 2009; 47:1009-1017
109. Fowler RA, Noyahr LA, Thornton JD, et al. American Thoracic Society Disparities in Healthcare Group: An official American Thoracic Society systematic review: The association between health insurance status and access, care delivery, and outcomes for patients who are critically ill. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2010; 181:1003-1011
110. Lyon SM, Benson NM, Cooke CR, et al. The effect of insurance status on mortality and procedural use in critically ill patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 184:809-815
111. Angus DC, Barnato AE, Linde-Zwirble WT, et al. Robert Wood Johnson Foundation ICU End-Of-Life Peer Group: Use of intensive care at the end of life in the United States: An epidemiologic study. Crit Care Med 2004; 32:638-643 (Pubitemid 38340056)
112. Barnato AE, Chang CC, Farrell MH, et al. Is survival better at hospitals with higher end-of-life treatment intensity? Med Care 2010; 48:125-132
113. Garrett JM, Harris RP, Norburn JK, et al. Life-sustaining treatments during terminal illness: Who wants what? J Gen Intern Med 1993; 8:361-368 (Pubitemid 23214011)
114. Caralis PV, Davis B, Wright K, et al. The influence of ethnicity and race on attitudes toward advance directives, life-prolonging treatments, and euthanasia. J Clin Ethics 1993; 4:155-165
115. Diringer MN, Edwards DF, Aiyagari V, et al. Factors associated with withdrawal of mechanical ventilation in a neurology/neurosurgery intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 2001; 29:1792-1797 (Pubitemid 32848383)
116. Degenholtz HB, Thomas SB, Miller MJ: Race and the intensive care unit: Disparities and preferences for end-of-life care. Crit Care Med 2003; 31:S373-S378 (Pubitemid 36583827)
117. Volandes AE, Paasche-Orlow M, Gillick MR, et al. Health literacy not race predicts end-of-life care preferences. J Palliat Med 2008; 11:754-762 (Pubitemid 351918848)
118. Loggers ET, Maciejewski PK, Paulk E, et al. Racial differences in predictors of intensive end-of-life care in patients with advanced cancer. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27:5559-5564
119. Kwak J, Haley WE: Current research findings on end-of-life decision making among racially or ethnically diverse groups. Gerontologist 2005; 45:634-641 (Pubitemid 41407529)
120. Muni S, Engelberg RA, Treece PD, et al. The influence of race/ethnicity and socioeconomic status on end-of-life care in the ICU. Chest 2011; 139:1025-1033
121. True G, Phipps EJ, Braitman LE, et al. Treatment preferences and advance care planning at end of life: The role of ethnicity and spiritual coping in cancer patients. Ann Behav Med 2005; 30:174-179 (Pubitemid 41377195)
122. Ford D, Zapka J, Gebregziabher M, et al. Factors associated with illness perception among critically ill patients and surrogates. Chest 2010; 138:59-67
123. Phelps AC, Maciejewski PK, Nilsson M, et al. Religious coping and use of intensive life-prolonging care near death in patients with advanced cancer. JAMA 2009; 301:1140-1147
124. Dombrovskiy VY, Martin AA, Sunderram J, et al. Rapid increase in hospitalization and mortality rates for severe sepsis in the United States: A trend analysis from 1993 to 2003. Crit Care Med 2007; 35:1244-1250 (Pubitemid 46642649)
125. Moss M, Mannino DM: Race and gender differences in acute respiratory distress syndrome deaths in the United States: An analysis of multiple-cause mortality data (1979-1996). Crit Care Med 2002; 30:1679-1685 (Pubitemid 34879574)
126. Ibrahim SA, Stone RA, Obrosky DS, et al. Racial differences in 30-day mortality for pulmonary embolism. Am J Public Health 2006; 96:2161-2164 (Pubitemid 44865107)
127. Schneider D, Lilienfeld DE, Im W: The epidemiology of pulmonary embolism: Racial contrasts in incidence and in-hospital case fatality. J Natl Med Assoc 2006; 98:1967-1972 (Pubitemid 44955943)
128. Chan PS, Nallamothu BK, Krumholz HM, et al. American Heart Association Get with the Guidelines-Resuscitation Investigators: Long-term outcomes in elderly survivors of in-hospital cardiac arrest. N Engl J Med 2013; 368:1019-1026
129. Erickson SE, Martin GS, Davis JL, et al. NIH NHLBI ARDS Network: Recent trends in acute lung injury mortality: 1996-2005. Crit Care Med 2009; 37:1574-1579
130. Ryb GE, Cooper C: Race/ethnicity and acute respiratory distress syndrome: A National Trauma Data Bank study. J Natl Med Assoc 2010; 102:865-869
131. Siddique RM, Siddique MI, Connors AF Jr, et al. Thirty-day casefatality rates for pulmonary embolism in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 1996; 156:2343-2347 (Pubitemid 26395548)
132. Melamed A, Sorvillo FJ: The burden of sepsis-associated mortality in the United States from 1999 to 2005: An analysis of multiple-causeof-death data. Crit Care 2009; 13:R28
133. Cooke CR, Erickson SE, Watkins TR, et al. Age-, sex-, and racebased differences among patients enrolled versus not enrolled in acute lung injury clinical trials. Crit Care Med 2010; 38: 1450-1457
134. Sugarman J, Sitlani C, Andrusiek D, et al. Resuscitation Outcomes Consortium Investigators: Is the enrollment of racial and ethnic minorities in research in the emergency setting equitable? Resuscitation 2009; 80:644-664
135. Gary KW, Arango-Lasprilla JC, Stevens LF: Do racial/ethnic differences exist in post-injury outcomes after TBI? A comprehensive review of the literature. Brain Inj 2009; 23:775-789
136. Santos MR, Russo J, Aisenberg G, et al. Ethnic/Racial diversity and posttraumatic distress in the acute care medical setting. Psychiatry 2008; 71:234-245
137. Kangelaris KN, Sapru A, Calfee CS, et al. National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute ARDS Network: The association between a Darc gene polymorphism and clinical outcomes in African American patients with acute lung injury. Chest 2012; 141:1160-1169
138. Virnig BA, Lurie N, Huang Z, et al. Racial variation in quality of care among Medicare+Choice enrollees. Health Aff (Millwood) 2002; 21:224-230
139. Werner RM, Goldman LE, Dudley RA: Comparison of change in quality of care between safety-net and non-safety-net hospitals. JAMA 2008; 299:2180-2187 (Pubitemid 351679709)
140. Haider AH, Chang DC, Efron DT, et al. Race and insurance status as risk factors for trauma mortality. Arch Surg 2008; 143:945-949
141. O'Brien JM Jr, Lu B, Ali NA, et al. Insurance type and sepsisassociated hospitalizations and sepsis-associated mortality among US adults: A retrospective cohort study. Crit Care 2011; 15:R130
142. Williams DR, Mohammed SA, Leavell J, et al. Race, socioeconomic status, and health: Complexities, ongoing challenges, and research opportunities. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2010; 1186:69-101