Clinical Gram-positive sepsis: Does it fundamentally differ from Gram- negative bacterial sepsis?

Critical Care Medicine

Volumn 27, Issue 8, 1999, Pages 1608-1616

  Opal, Steven M ^a,c   Cohen, Jonathan ^b  

^a BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b HAMMERSMITH HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^c MEMORIAL HOSPITAL OF RHODE ISLAND   (United States)

Author keywords

Anticytokines; Cytokines; Endotoxemia; Endotoxin; Gram positive sepsis; Immunotherapy; Sepsis; Septic shock; Superantigen

Indexed keywords

CORTICOSTEROID; CYTOKINE; DELTIBANT; IMMUNOLOGICAL ADJUVANT; INTERLEUKIN 1 RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY; PLACEBO; THROMBOCYTE ACTIVATING FACTOR RECEPTOR AFFECTING AGENT;

ENDOTOXEMIA; GRAM NEGATIVE INFECTION; GRAM POSITIVE BACTERIUM; HUMAN; IMMUNE RESPONSE; INFLAMMATION; MEDICAL INFORMATION; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEPSIS; SEPTIC SHOCK;

EID: 0032841352     PISSN: 00903493     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00003246-199908000-00039     Document Type: Review

References (88)

1. 1. Wenzel RP: Anti-endotoxin monoclonal antibodies: A second look. N Engl J Med 1992; 326:1151-1153
2. 2. Parrillo JE, Parker MM, Natanson C, et al: Septic shock in humans. Ann Intern Med 1990; 113:227-242
3. 3. Brun-Buisson C, Doyan F, Carlet J, et al: Incidence, risk factors, and outcome of severe sepsis and septic shock in adults. JAMA 1995; 274:968-974
4. 4. Milberg JA, Davis DR, Steinberg KP, et al: Improved survival of patients with acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS): 1983-1993. JAMA 1995; 273:306-309
5. 5. Bone RC: Pathophysiology of sepsis. Ann Intern Med 1991; 115:457-469
6. 6. Greisman SE, DuBuy JB, Woodward CL: Experimental gram-negative bacterial sepsis: Prevention of mortality not preventable by antibiotics alone. Infect Immun 1979; 25: 538-557
7. 7. Ulevitch RJ, Tobias PS: Recognition of endotoxin by cells leading to transmembrane signaling. Curr Opin Immunol 1994; 6:125-130
8. 8. Natanson C, Danner RL, Ulin RJ, et al: Role of endotoxemia in cardiovascular dysfunction and mortality. J Clin Invest 1989; 83: 243-251
9. 9. Wolff SM: Biological effects of bacterial endotoxins in man. J Infect Dis 1973; 128: S259-S264
10. 10. Bone RC: Gram-negative sepsis: A dilemma of modern medicine. Clin Microbiol Rev 1993; 6:57-68
11. 11. Leibovici L, Smara Z, Koigsberger H, et al: Long-term survival following bacteremia or fungemia. JAMA 1995; 274:807-812
12. 12. Bates DW, Pruess KE, Lee TH: How bad are bacteremia and sepsis? Outcomes in a cohort with suspected bacteremia. Arch Intern Med 1995; 155:593-598
13. 13. Geerdes HF, Ziegler D, Lode H, et al: Septicemia in 980 patients at a university hospital in Berlin: Prospective studies during four selected years between 1979 and 1989. Clin Infect Dis 1992; 15:991-1002
14. 14. Wright ST: CD14 and innate recognition of bacteria. J Immunol 1995; 155:6-8
15. 15. Mollick JA, Chintagumpala M, Cook RC, et al: Staphylococcal exotoxin activation of T cells. J Immunol 1991; 146:463-468
16. 16. Bochud P-Y, Calandra T, Francioli P: Bacteremia due to viridans streptococci in neutropenic patients: A review. N Engl J Med 1994; 97:256-264
17. 17. Bone RC: Gram-positive organisms and sepsis. Arch Intern Med 1994; 154:26-34
18. 18. Cockerill FR, Hughes JG, Vetter EA, et al: Analysis of 281,797 consecutive blood cultures performed over an 8-year period: Trends in microorganisms isolated and the value of anaerobic culture of blood. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24:403-408
19. 19. Vallés J, León C, Alvarez-Ledrma, et al: Nosocomial bacteremia in critically ill patients: A multicenter study evaluating epidemiology and prognosis. Clin Infect Dis 1997; 24: 387-395
20. 20. Breiman RF, Butler JC, Tenover FC, et al: Emergence of drug-resistant pneumococcal infections in the United States. JAMA 1994; 271:1831-1835
21. 21. Seppälä H, Klaukka T, Lehtonen R, et al: Outpatient use of erythromycin: Linked to increased erythromycin resistance in group A streptococci. Clin Infect Dis 1995; 21: 1378-1385
22. 22. Takashima K, Tateda K, Matsumoto T, et al: Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha in pathogenesis of pneumococcal pneumonia in mice. Infect Immun 1997; 65:257-260
23. 23. Havell EA, Moldawer LL, Helfgott D, et al: Type I IL-1 receptor blockade exacerbates murine listeriosis. J Immunol 1992; 148: 1486-1492
24. 24. Dirkes K, Harris BH, Connolly RJ, et al: Platelet activating factor antagonist improves survival in experimental staphylococcal septicemia. J Pediatr Surg 1994; 29: 1055-1057
25. 25. Aiura K, Gelfand JA, Burke JF, et al: Interleukin-1(IL-1) receptor antagonist prevents Staphylococcus epidermidis-induced hypotension and reduces circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor and IL-1 beta in rabbits. Infect Immun 1993; 61:3342-3350
26. 26. Cross AS, Opal SM, Sadoff JD, et al: Choice of bacteria in animal models of sepsis. Infect Immun 1993; 61:2741-2744
27. 27. Morrison DC, Danner RL, Dinarello CA, et al: Bacterial endotoxins and pathogenesis of gram-negative infections: Current status and future direction. J Endotoxin Res 1994; 1:71-83
28. 28. Brandtzaeg P, Kerrulf P, Gaustad P, et al: Plasma endotoxin as a predictor of multiple organ failure and death in systemic meningococcal disease. J Infect Dis 1989; 159: 195-204
29. 29. Danner RL, Elin RJ, Hosseini JM, et al: Endotoxemia in human septic shock. Chest 1991; 99:169-175
30. 30. Opal SM, Palardy JE, Parejo N, et al: Endotoxemia in sepsis: Therapeutic and prognostic implications. 35th ICAAC 1995, San Francisco, CA. (Abstract#G88)
31. 31. Goldie AS, Fearson KCH, Ross JA, et al: Natural cytokine antagonists and endogenous antiendotoxin core antibodies in sepsis syndrome. JAMA 1995; 274:172-177
32. 32. Bennett-Guerrero E, Ayuso L, Hamilton-Davies C, et al: Relationship of preoperative antiendotoxin core antibodies and adverse outcomes following cardiac surgery. JAMA 1997; 277:646-650
33. 33. Hurley JC: Concordance of endotoxemia with gram-negative bacteremia in patients with gram-negative sepsis: A meta-analysis. J Clin Microbiol 1994; 32:2120-2127
34. 34. Timmerman CP, Mattsson E, Martinez-Martinez L, et al: Induction of release of tumor necrosis factor from human monocytes by staphylococci and staphylococcal peptidoglycans. Infect Immun 1993; 61: 4167-4172
35. 35. De Kimpe SJ, Kengatharan M, Thiemermann C, et al: The cell wall components peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid from Staphylococcus aureus act in synergy to cause shock and multiple organ failure. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1995; 92:10359-10363
36. 36. Kengatharan KM, De Kimpe SJ, Thiemermann C: Role of nitric oxide in the circulatory failure and organ injury in a rodent model of gram-positive shock. Br J Pharmacol 1996; 119:1411-1421
37. 37. Bohach GA, Fast DJ, Nelson RD, et al: Staphylococcal and streptococcal pyrogenic toxins involved in toxic shock syndrome and related illnesses. CRC Crit Rev Microbiol 1990; 17: 251-272
38. 38. Schlievert PM: The role of superantigens in human disease. Curr Opin Infect Dis 1995; 8:170
39. 39. Kotb M: Bacterial pyrogenic exotoxins as superantigens. Clin Microbiol Rev 1995; 8:411-426
40. 40. Leung DY, Giorno RC, Kazemi LV, et al: Evidence for superantigen involvement in cardiovascular injury due to Kawasaki syndrome. J Immunol 1995; 155:5018-5021
41. 41. Leung DY, Travers JB, Giorno R, et al: Evidence for a streptococcal superantigen-driven process in acute guttate psoriasis. J Clin Invest 1995; 96:2106-2112
42. 42. Redpath S, Alam SM, Lin CM, et al: Trimolecular interaction of TCR with MHC class II and bacterial superantigen shows a similar affinity to MHC: Peptide ligands. J Immunol 1999; 163:6-10
43. 43. Gonzalo JA, Gonzalez GA, Martinez C, et al: Glucocorticoid-mediated control of the activation and clonal deletion of peripheral T cell in vivo. J Exp Med 1993; 177:1239-1246
44. 44. Heeg K, Bendigs S, Miethke T, et al: Induction of unresponsiveness to the superantigen staphylococcal enterotoxin B: Cyclosporin A resistant split unresponsiveness unfolds in vivo without preceding clonal expansion. Int Immunol 1993; 5:929-937
45. 45. Kneitz B, Herrmann T, Yonehara S, et al: Normal clonal expansion but impaired Fas-mediated cell death and anergy induction in interleukin-2-deficient mice. Eur J Immunol 1995; 25:2572-2577
46. 46. Meithke T Wahl C, Regele D, et al: Superantigen mediated shock: A cytokine release syndrome. Immunobiology 1993; 189:270-284
47. 47. Norrby-Teglund A, Kaul R, Low DE, et al: Evidence for the presence of streptococcal-superantigen-neutralizing antibodies in normal polyspecific immunoglobulin G. Infect Immun 1996; 64:5395-5398
48. 48. Sriskandan S, Moyes D, Buttery LD, et al: Streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin A release, distribution and role in a murine model of fasciitis and multi-organ failure due to Streptococcus pyogenes. J Infect Dis 1996; 173:1399-1407
49. 49. Chaussee MS, Liu J, Stevens DL, et al: Genetic and phenotypic diversity among isolates of Streptococcus pyogenes from invasive infections. J Infect Dis 1996; 173: 901-908
50. 50. Norrby-Teglund A, Pauksens K, Holm SE, et al: Relation between low capacity of human sera to inhibit streptococcal mitogens and serious manifestation of disease. J Infect Dis 1994; 170:585-591
51. 51. Sriskandan S, Moyes D, Cohen J: Detection of circulating bacterial superantigen and lymphotoxin in patients with streptococcal toxic-shock syndrome. Lancet 1996; 348: 1315-1316
52. 52. Seeger W, Schütte H, Grimminger F, et al: Bacterial exotoxins and sepsis. In: Sepsis: Current Perspectives in Pathophysiology and Therapy. Reinhart K, Eyrich K, Sprung C. (Eds). Berlin, Springer-Verlag, 1994, pp 61-85
53. 53. Ulevitch RJ, Tobias PS: Receptor-dependent mechanisms of cell stimulation by bacterial endotoxin. Annu Rev Immunol 1995; 13: 437-457
54. 54. Weersink AJ: Human lipopolysaccharide binding proteins. Rev Med Micobiol 1995; 6:101-108
55. 55. Wurfel MM, Hailman E, Wright SD: Soluble CD14 acts as a shuttle in the neutralization of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by LPS-binding protein and reconstituted high density lipoprotein. J Exp Med 1995; 181:1743-1754
56. 56. Pugin J, Heumann ID, Tomasz A, et al: CD14 is a pattern recognition receptor. Immunity 1994; 1:509-516
57. 57. Cleveland MG, Gorham JD, Murphy TL, et al: Lipoteichoic acid preparations of gram-positive bacteria induce interleukin-12 through a CD14-dependent pathway. Infect Immun 1996; 64:1906-1912
58. 58. Dziarski R, Jin Y-P, Gupta D: Differential activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)1, ERK2, p38, and c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase mitogen-activated protein kinases by bacterial peptidoglycan. J Infect Dis 1996; 174:777-785
59. 59. Sriskandan S, Cohen J: The pathogenesis of septic shock. J Infect 1995; 30:201-206
60. 60. Andersson J, Nagy S, Björk L, et al: Bacterial toxin-induced cytokine production studied at the single-cell level. Immunol Rev 1992; 127: 69-96
61. 61. Muller-Alouf H, Alouf JE, Gerlach D, et al: Comparative study of cytokine release by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells stimulated with Streptococcus pyogenes superantigenic erythrogenic toxins, heat-killed streptococci, and lipopolysaccharide. Infect Immun 1994; 62:4915-4921
62. 62. Silva AT, Bayston KF, Cohen J: Prophylactic and therapeutic effects of a monoclonal antibody to tumor necrosis factor-alpha in experimental gram-negative shock. J Infect Dis 1990; 162:421-427
63. 63. Mathison JC, Wolfson E, Ulevitch RJ: Participation of tumor necrosis factor in the mediation of gram-negative bacterial lipopolysaccharide-induced injury in rabbits. J Clin Invest 1988; 81:1925-1937
64. 64. Hesse DG, Tracey KJ, Kong Y, et al: Cytokine appearance in human endotoxemia and primate bacteremia. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1988; 166:147-153
65. 65. Von der Möhlen M, Kimmings AN, Wedel N, et al: Inhibition of endotoxin-induced cytokine release and neutrophil activation in humans by use of recombinant bactericidal/permeability-increasing protein. J Infect Dis 1995; 172:144-151
66. 66. Taveira da Silva AM, Kaulback HC, Chuidian FS, et al: Shock and multiple-organ dysfunction after self-administration of Salmonella endotoxin. N Engl J Med 1993; 328: 1457-1460
67. 67. Wakabayashi G, Gelfand JA, Jung WK, et al: Staphylococcus epidermidis induces complement activation, tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1, a shock-like state and tissue injury in rabbits without endotoxemia: Comparison to Escherichia coli. J Clin Invest 1991; 87:1925-1935
68. 68. Silverstein R, Norimatsu M, Morrison DC: Fundamental differences during gram-positive vs. gram-negative sepsis become apparent during bacterial challenge of D-galactosamine-treated mice. J Endotoxin Res 1997; 4:173-181
69. 69. Marks JD, Marks CB, Luce JM, et al: Plasma tumor necrosis factor in patients with septic shock: Mortality rate, incidence of adult respiratory distress syndrome, and effects of methyl prednisolone administration. Am Rev Respir Dis 1990; 141:94-97
70. 70. Friedland JS, Porter JC, Daryanani S, et al: Plasma proinflammatory cytokine concentrations, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE) III scores and survival in patients in an intensive care unit. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:1775-1781
71. 71. Lemm G, Carlet J, Cohen J, et al: Cytokine levels in patients with the sepsis syndrome treated with a monoclonal antibody to human TNF-α (INTERSEPT trial). Abstr. Clin Intensive Care 1995; 6:68
72. 72. Fisher CJ, Opal SM, Dhainaut J-F, et al: Influence of a murine anti-TNF monoclonal antibody (CB0006) on cytokine levels in patients in sepsis. Crit Care Med 1993; 21: 318-327
73. 73. Westendorp RGJ, Langemans JAM, Huizinga TWJ, et al: Genetic influence on cytokine production and fatal meningococcal disease. Lancet 1997; 349:170-173
74. 74. Stüber F, Petersen M, Bokelmann F, et al: Agenomic polymorphism within the tumor necrosis factor locus influences plasma tumor necrosis factor-α concentrations and outcome of patients with severe sepsis. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:381-384
75. 75. Newport MJ, Huxley CM, Huston S, et al: A mutation in the interferon-gamma-receptor gene and susceptibility to mycobacterial infection. N Engl J Med 1996; 335:1941-1949
76. 76. Bellamy R, Ruwende C, Corrah T, et al: Variations in the NRAMP1 gene and susceptibility to tuberculosis in West Africans. N Engl J Med 1998; 338:640-644
77. 77. Norris C, Surrey S, Bunin GR, et al: Relationship between Fc receptor 11A polymorphism and infection in children with sickle cell disease. J Pediatr 1996; 128:813-819
78. 78. Kwaan HM, Weil MH: Differences in the mechanism of shock caused by bacterial infections. Surg Gynecol Obstet 1969; 128: 37-45
79. 79. Wiles JB, Cerra FB, Siegel JH, et al: The systemic septic response: Does the organism matter? Crit Care Med 1980; 8:55-60
80. 80. Ahmed J, Fruse JA, Haupt MT, et al: Hemodynamic responses to gram-positive versus gram-negative sepsis in critically ill patients with and without circulatory shock. Crit Care Med 1991; 19:1520-1525
81. 81. The Veteran's Administration Systemic Sepsis Co-operative Study Group: Effective of high-dose glucocorticoid therapy on mortality in patients with clinical signs of systemic sepsis. N Engl J Med 1987; 317:659-665
82. 82. Dhainaut JF, Tenaillon A, LeTulzo Y, et al: Platelet-activating factor receptor antagonist BN52021 in the treatment of severe sepsis: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multi-center clinical trial. Crit Care Med 1994; 22:1720-1728
83. 83. Fein AM, Bernard GR, Criner GJ, et al: Treatment of severe systemic inflammatory response syndrome and sepsis with a novel bradykinin antagonist, deltibant(CP-0127). JAMA 1997; 277:482-487
84. 84. Fisher CJ, Dhainaut J-F, Opal SM, et al: Recombinant human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist in the treatment of patients with sepsis syndrome. JAMA 1994; 271:1836-1843
85. 85. Cohen J, Carlet J, for the INTERSEPT study group: INTERSEPT: An international, multicenter, placebo-controlled trial of monoclonal antibody to human tumor necrosis factor-alpha in patients with sepsis. Crit Care Med 1996; 24:1431-1440
86. 86. Fisher CJ, Agosti J, Opal SM, et al: A phase II, double-blind, randomized, clinical trial of soluble TNF receptor:Fc fusion protein in the treatment of severe sepsis. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:1697-1702
87. 87. Abraham E, Glauser MP, Butler T, et al: P55 tumor necrosis factor receptor fusion protein in the treatment of patients with severe sepsis and septic shock. JAMA 1997; 277: 1531-1538
88. 88. Opal SM: Lessons learned in recent clinical trials from sepsis. J Endotoxin Res 1995; 2:221-226