Medical approaches to non-melanoma skin cancer

Expert Review of Anticancer Therapy

Volumn 13, Issue 12, 2013, Pages 1409-1421

  Micali, Giuseppe ^a   Lacarrubba, Francesco ^a   Bhatt, Karishma ^b   Nasca, Maria Rita ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CATANIA   (Italy)

^b NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

5 fluorouracil; Actinic keratosis; Basal cell carcinoma; Cetuximab; Diclofenac; Gefitinib; Imiquimod; Ingenol mebutate; Medical treatment; Skin cancer; Squamous cell carcinoma; Vismodegib

Indexed keywords

2,5 DIHYDROXYBENZENESULFONIC ACID; ADAPALENE; ALPHA INTERFERON; BETULIC ACID; BLEOMYCIN; BORTEZOMIB; CAPECITABINE; CETUXIMAB; CISPLATIN; CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE; CYTOTOXIC AGENT; DICLOFENAC; DOXORUBICIN; ERLOTINIB; FLUOROURACIL; GEFITINIB; IMATINIB; IMIQUIMOD; INGENOL MEBUTATE; ISOTRETINOIN; METHOTREXATE; PIROXICAM; PLACEBO; PLATINUM COMPLEX; RESIQUIMOD; RETINOIC ACID; SALICYLIC ACID; UNINDEXED DRUG; VINCA ALKALOID; VISMODEGIB;

ABSENCE OF SIDE EFFECTS; ACTINIC KERATOSIS; ADVANCED CANCER; ANTINEOPLASTIC ACTIVITY; ARTHRALGIA; BASAL CELL CARCINOMA; BLISTER; BOWEN DISEASE; BURNING SENSATION; CANCER CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER COMBINATION CHEMOTHERAPY; CANCER REGRESSION; CANCER SURGERY; DIARRHEA; DRUG CONTRAINDICATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG FORMULATION; DRUG INDICATION; DRUG MECHANISM; DRUG TOLERABILITY; EROSION; ERYTHEMA; ERYTHROPLASIA; FEVER; FLU LIKE SYNDROME; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HUMAN; METASTASIS; METASTASIS POTENTIAL; MOLECULARLY TARGETED THERAPY; MONOTHERAPY; MULTIPLE CYCLE TREATMENT; MYALGIA; NAUSEA; NON MELANOMA SKIN CANCER; NONHUMAN; OFF LABEL DRUG USE; PAGET SKIN DISEASE; PHOTODYNAMIC THERAPY; PRURITUS; RASH; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SINGLE DRUG DOSE; SKIN CARCINOMA; SKIN NECROSIS; SKIN SURGERY; SKIN SWELLING; SKIN ULCER; SURGICAL RISK; TREATMENT OUTCOME; XEROSIS;

ADMINISTRATION, TOPICAL; ANTINEOPLASTIC AGENTS; HUMANS; MELANOMA; MOLECULAR TARGETED THERAPY; SKIN NEOPLASMS;

EID: 84888254531     PISSN: 14737140     EISSN: 17448328     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/14737140.2013.856759     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Askew DA, Mickan SM, Soyer HP, Wilkinson D. Effectiveness of 5-fluorouracil treatment for actinic keratosis - a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Int. J. Dermatol. 48, 453-463 (2009).
2. Klein E, Milgrom H, Helm F, Ambrus J, Traenkle HL, Stoll HL. Tumors of the skin: effects of local use of cytostatic agents. Skin (Los Angeles) 1, 81-87 (1962).
3. Klein E, Stoll HL, Miller E, Milgrom H, Helm F, Burgess G. The effects of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) ointment in the treatment of neoplastic dermatoses. Dermatologica 140(Suppl. 1), 21-33 (1970).
4. Klein E, Stoll HL Jr, Milgrom H, Helm F, Walker MJ. Tumors of the skin. XII. Topical 5-Fluorouracil for epidermal neoplasms. J. Surg. Oncol. 3, 331-349 (1971).
5. Klein E, Schwartz RA, Case RW et al. Accessible tumors. In: Clinical Immunotherapy. LoBuglio AF (Ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, USA, 31-71 (1980).
6. McGillis ST, Fein H. Topical treatment strategies for non-melanoma skin cancer and precursor lesions. Semin. Cutan. Med. Surg. 23, 174-83 (2004).
7. Weinberg JM. Topical therapy for actinic keratoses: current and evolving therapies. Rev. Recent Clin. Trials 1, 53-60 (2006).
8. Micali G, Lacarrubba F, Dinotta F, Massimino D, Nasca MR. Treating skin cancer with topical cream. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 11, 1515-1527 (2010).
9. Desai T, Chen CL, Desai A, Kirby W. Basic pharmacology of topical imiquimod, 5-fluorouracil, and diclofenac for the dermatologic surgeon. Dermatol. Surg. 38, 97-103 (2012).
10. Nashan D, Meiss F, Müller M. Therapeutic strategies for actinic keratoses - a systematic review. Eur. J. Dermatol. 23, 14-32 (2013).
11. Stockfleth E, Kerl H, Zwingers T, Willers C. Low-dose 5-fluorouracil in combination with salicylic acid as a new lesion-directed option to treat topically actinic keratoses: histological and clinical study results. Br. J. Dermatol. 165, 1101-1108 (2011).
12. de Berker D, McGregor JM, Hughes BR; British Association of Dermatologists Therapy Guidelines and Audit Subcommittee. Guidelines for the management of actinic keratoses. Br. J. Dermatol. 156, 222-230 (2007).
13. Jadotte YT, Schwartz RA. Solar cheilosis: an ominous precursor: Part II. Therapeutic perspectives. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 66, 187-198 (2012).
14. Robinson JK. Actinic cheilitis. A prospective study comparing four treatment methods. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 115, 848-852 (1989).
15. Warnock GR, Fuller RP Jr, Pelleu GB Jr. Evaluation of 5-fluorouracil in the treatment of actinic keratosis of the lip. Oral Surg. Oral Med. Oral Pathol. 52, 501-505 (1981).
16. Klein E, Stoll HL Jr, Milgrom H et al. Tumors of the skin. IV. Double-blind study on effects of local administration of anti-tumor agents in basal cell carcinoma. J. Invest. Dermatol. 44, 351-353 (1965).
17. Gross K, Kircik L, Kricorian G. 5% 5-Fluorouracil cream for the treatment of small superficial basal cell carcinoma: efficacy, tolerability, cosmetic outcome, and patient satisfaction. Dermatol. Surg. 33, 433-439 (2007).
18. Romagosa R, Saap L, Givens M et al. A pilot study to evaluate the treatment of basal cell carcinoma with 5-fluorouracil using phosphatidyl choline as a transepidermal carrier. Dermatol. Surg. 26, 338 (2000).
19. Shelley WB, Wood MG. Nodular superficial pigmented basal cell epitheliomas. Long-term fluorouracil treatment. Arch. Dermatol. 118, 928-930 (1982).
20. čeović R, Smolković N, Pašić A, Kostović K, Hrsan D. Multiple basal cell carcinomas of lower legs with stasis dermatitis: a therapeutic challenge. Acta Dermatovenerol. Croat. 20, 191-196 (2012).
21. Bargman H, Hochman J. Topical treatment of Bowen's disease with 5-fluorouracil. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 7, 101-105 (2003).
22. Salim A, Leman JA, McColl JH, Chapman R, Morton CA. Randomized comparison of photodynamic therapy with topical 5-fluorouracil in Bowen's disease. Br. J. Dermatol. 148, 539-543 (2003).
23. Goette DK, Carson TE. Erythroplasia of Queyrat: treatment with topical 5-fluorouracil. Cancer 38, 1498-1502 (1976).
24. Bewley AP, Bracka A, Staughton RC, Bunker CB. Extramammary Paget's disease of the scrotum: treatment with topical 5-fluorouracil and plastic surgery. Br. J. Dermatol. 131, 445-446 (1994).
25. Del Castillo LF, Garcia C, Schoendorff C, Garcia JF, Torres LM, Garcia Almagro D. Spontaneous apparent clinical resolution with histologic persistence of a case of extramammary Paget's disease: response to topical 5-fluorouracil. Cutis 65, 331-333 (2000).
26. Ye JN, Rhew DC, Yip F, Edelstein L. Extramammary Paget's disease resistant to surgery and imiquimod monotherapy but responsive to imiquimod combination topical chemotherapy with 5-fluorouracil and retinoic acid: a case report. Cutis 77, 245-250 (2006).
27. Johnson MR, Hageboutros A, Wang K, High L, Smith JB, Diasio RB. Life-threatening toxicity in a dihydropyrimidine dehydrogenase-deficient patient after treatment with topical 5-fluorouracil. Clin. Cancer Res. 5, 2006-2011 (1999).
28. Lacarrubba F, Nasca MR, Micali G. Advances in the use of topical imiquimod to treat dermatologic disorders. Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. 4, 87-97 (2008).
29. Patel GK, Goodwin R, Chawla M et al. Imiquimod 5% cream monotherapy for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in situ (Bowen's disease): a randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 54, 1025-1032 (2006).
30. Schön M, Schön MP. The antitumoral mode of action of imiquimod and other imidazoquinolines. Curr. Med. Chem. 14, 681-687 (2007).
31. Berman B, Sullivan T, De Araujo T, Nadji M. Expression of Fas-receptor on basal cell carcinomas after treatment with imiquimod 5% cream or vehicle. Br. J. Dermatol. 149(Suppl. 66), 59-61 (2003).
32. Li VW, Li WW, Talcott KE, Zhai AW. Imiquimod as an antiangiogenic agent. J. Drugs Dermatol. 4, 708-717 (2005).
33. Falagas ME, Angelousi AG, Peppas G. Imiquimod for the treatment of actinic keratosis: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 55, 537-538 (2006).
34. Vatve M, Ortonne JP, Birch-Machin MA, Gupta G. Management of field change in actinic keratosis. Br. J. Dermatol. 157(Suppl. 2), 21-24 (2007).
35. Stockfleth E. The paradigm shift in treating actinic keratosis: a comprehensive strategy. J. Drugs Dermatol. 11, 1462-1467 (2012).
36. Ulrich C. Topical treatment of field cancerization. Cancer Treat. Res. 146, 439-446 (2009).
37. Hadley G, Derry S, Moore RA. Imiquimod for actinic keratoses: systematic review and meta-analysis. J. Invest. Dermatol. 126, 1251-1255 (2006).
38. Stockfleth E, Christophers E, Benninghoff B, Sterry W. Low incidence of new actinic keratoses after topical 5% imiquimod cream treatment: a long-term follow-up study. Arch. Dermatol. 140(12), 1542 (2004).
39. Gupta AK, Davey V, Mcphail H. Evaluation of the effectiveness of imiquimod and 5-fluorouracil for the treatment of actinic keratosis: critical review and meta-analysis of efficacy studies. J. Cutan. Med. Surg. 9, 209-214 (2005).
40. Swanson N, Abramovits W, Berman B, Kulp J, Rigel DS, Levy S. Imiquimod 2.5% and 3.75% for the treatment of actinic keratoses: results of two placebo-controlled studies of daily application to the face and balding scalp for two 2-week cycles. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 62, 582-590 (2010).
41. Roozeboom MH, Arits AH, Nelemans PJ, Kelleners-Smeets NW. Overall treatment success after treatment of primary superficial basal cell carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized and non-randomized trials. Br. J. Dermatol. 167, 733-756 (2012).
42. Geisse JK, Rich P, Pandya A et al. Imiquimod 5% cream for the treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: a double-blind, randomized vehicle-controlled study. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47, 390-398 (2002).
43. Gollnick H, Barona CG, Frank RG et al. Recurrence rate of superficial basal cell carcinoma following treatment with imiquimod 5% cream: conclusion of a 5-year long-term follow-up study in Europe. Eur. J. Dermatol. 18, 677-682 (2008).
44. Quirk C, Gebauer K, De'Ambrosis B, Slade HB, Meng TC. Sustained clearance of superficial basal cell carcinomas treated with imiquimod cream 5%: results of a prospective 5-year study. Cutis 85, 318-324 (2010).
45. Arits AH, Mosterd K, Essers BA et al. Photodynamic therapy versus topical imiquimod versus topical fluorouracil for treatment of superficial basal-cell carcinoma: a single blind, non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 14, 647-654 (2013).
46. Shumack S, Robinson J, Kossard S et al. Efficacy of topical 5% imiquimod cream for the treatment of nodular basal cell carcinoma: comparison of dosing regimens. Arch. Dermatol. 138, 1165-1171 (2002).
47. Eigentler TK, Kamin A, Weide BM et al. A phase III, randomized, open label study to evaluate the safety and efficacy of imiquimod 5% cream applied thrice weekly for 8 and 12 weeks in the treatment of low-risk nodular basal cell carcinoma. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 57, 616-621 (2007).
48. Lacarrubba F, Potenza MC, Gurgone S, Micali G. Successful treatment and management of large superficial basal cell carcinomas with topical imiquimod 5% cream: a case series and review. J. Dermatolog. Treat. 22, 353-358 (2011).
49. Micali G, Lacarrubba F, Nasca MR, De Pasquale R. The use of imiquimod 5% cream for the treatment of basal cell carcinoma as observed in Gorlin's syndrome. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 28(Suppl. 1), 19-23 (2003).
50. Orengo I, Rosen T, Guill CK. Treatment of squamous cell carcinoma in situ of the penis with 5% imiquimod cream: a case report. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47(Suppl. 4), 225-228 (2002).
51. Schroeder TL, Sengelmann RD. Squamous cell carcinoma in situ of the penis successfully treated with imiquimod 5% cream. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 46, 545-548 (2002).
52. Micali G, Nasca MR, De Pasquale R. Erythroplasia of Queyrat treated with imiquimod 5% cream. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 55, 901-903 (2006).
53. Zampogna JC, Flowers FP, Roth WI, Hassenein AM. Treatment of primary limited cutaneous extramammary Paget's disease with topical imiquimod monotherapy: two case reports. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 47(Suppl. 4), S229-S235 (2002).
54. Gil-Bistes D, Kluger N, Rigau V, Guillot B. Successful treatment of recurrent extramammary Paget's disease of the penis and scrotum with imiquimod 5% cream. Presse Med. 40, 1205-1206 (2011).
55. Feldmeyer L, Kerl K, Kamarashev J, de Viragh P, French LE. Treatment of vulvar Paget disease with topical imiquimod: a case report and review of the literature. J. Dermatol. Case Rep. 5, 42-46 (2011).
56. Baiocchi G, Begnami MD, Fukazawa EM et al. Conservative management of extramammary Paget disease with imiquimod. J. Low. Genit. Tract Dis. 16, 59-63 (2012).
57. Choi JW, Choi M, Cho KH. A case of erythroplasia of Queyrat treated with imiquimod 5% cream and excision. Ann. Dermatol. 21, 419-422 (2009).
58. Jim On SC, Izumi AK. Extramammary Paget disease: failure to respond to topical imiquimod 5%. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 65, 656-657 (2011).
59. Caperton C, Berman B. Safety, efficacy, and patient acceptability of imiquimod for topical treatment of actinic keratoses. Clin. Cosmet. Investig. Dermatol. 4, 35-40 (2011).
60. Attili SK, Ibbotson SH, Fleming C. Role of non-surgical therapies in the management of periocular basal cell carcinoma and squamous intra-epidermal carcinoma: a case series and review of the literature. Photodermatol. Photoimmunol. Photomed. 28, 68-79 (2012).
61. Shoimer I, Rosen N, Muhn C. Current management of actinic keratoses. Skin Therapy Lett. 15(5), 5-7 (2010).
62. Zhan H, Zheng H. The role of topical cyclo-oxygenase-2 inhibitors in skin cancer: treatment and prevention. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 8, 195-200 (2007).
63. Nelson CG. Diclofenac gel in the treatment of actinic keratoses. Ther. Clin. Risk Manag. 7, 207-211 (2011).
64. Maltusch A, Röwert-Huber J, Matthies C, Lange-Asschenfeldt S, Stockfleth E. Modes of action of diclofenac 3%/hyaluronic acid 2.5% in the treatment of actinic keratosis. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 9, 1011-1017 (2011).
65. Merk HF. Topical diclofenac in the treatment of actinic keratoses. Int. J. Dermatol. 46, 12-18 (2007).
66. Rivers JK, Arlette J, Shear N, Guenther L, Carey W, Poulin Y. Topical treatment of actinic keratoses with 3.0% diclofenac in 2.5% hyaluronan gel. Br. J. Dermatol. 146, 94-100 (2002).
67. Wolf JE Jr, Taylor JR, Tschen E, Kang S. Topical 3.0% diclofenac in 2.5% hyaluronan gel in the treatment of actinic keratoses. Int. J. Dermatol. 40, 709-713 (2001).
68. Pirard D, Vereecken P, Mélot C, Heenen M. Three percent diclofenac in 2.5% hyaluronan gel in the treatment of actinic keratoses: a meta-analysis of the recent studies. Arch. Dermatol. Res. 297, 185-189 (2005).
69. Pflugfelder A, Welter AK, Leiter U et al. Open label randomized study comparing 3.months vs. 6 months treatment of actinic keratoses with 3% diclofenac in 2.5% hyaluronic acid gel: a trial of the German Dermatologic Cooperative Oncology Group. J. Eur. Acad. Dermatol. Venereol. 26, 48-53 (2012).
70. Ulrich C, Forschner T, Ulrich M, Stockfleth E, Sterry W, Termeer C. Management of actinic cheilitis using diclofenac 3% gel: a report of six cases. Br. J. Dermatol. 156(Suppl. 3), 43-46 (2007).
71. Akarsu S, Aktan S, Atahan A, Koç P, Özkan S. Comparison of topical 3% diclofenac sodium gel and 5% imiquimod cream for the treatment of actinic keratoses. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 36, 479-484 (2011).
72. Dawe SA, Salisbury JR, Higgins E. Two cases of Bowen's disease successfully treated topically with 3% diclofenac in 2.5% hyaluronan gel. Clin. Exp. Dermatol. 30, 712-713 (2005).
73. Patel MJ, Stockfleth E. Does progression from actinic keratosis and Bowen's disease end with treatment: diclofenac 3% gel, an old drug in a new environment? Br. J. Dermatol. 156(Suppl. 3), 53-56 (2007).
74. Lebwohl M, Swanson N, Anderson LL, Melgaard A, Xu Z, Berman B. Ingenol mebutate gel for actinic keratosis. N. Engl. J. Med. 366, 1010-1019 (2012).
75. Lebwohl M, Shumack S, Gold LS, Melgaard A, Larsson T, Tyring SK. Long-term follow-up study of ingenol mebutate gel for the treatment of actinic keratoses. JAMA Dermatol. 149, 666-670 (2013).
76. Rosen RH, Gupta AK, Tyring SK. Dual mechanism of action of ingenol mebutate gel for topical treatment of actinic keratoses: rapid lesion necrosis followed by lesion-specific immune response. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 66, 486-493 (2012).
77. Amini S, Viera MH, Valins W, Berman B. Nonsurgical innovations in the treatment of nonmelanoma skin cancer. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol. 3, 20-34 (2010).
78. Fallen R, Gooderham M. Ingenol mebutate: an introduction. Skin Therapy Lett. 17, 1-3 (2012).
79. Patel RV, Frankel A, Goldenberg G. An update on nonmelanoma skin cancer. J. Clin. Aesthet. Dermatol. 4, 20-27 (2011).
80. Siller G, Rosen R, Freeman M, Welburn P, Katsamas J, Ogbourne SM. PEP005 (ingenol mebutate) gel for the topical treatment of superficial basal cell carcinoma: results of a randomized phase IIa trial. Australas. J. Dermatol. 51, 99-105 (2010).
81. Martin G, Swanson N. Clinical findings using ingenol mebutate gel to treat actinic keratoses. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 68 (1 Suppl. 1), S39-S48 (2013).
82. Mukherjee S, Date A, Patravale V, Korting HC, Roeder A, Weindl G. Retinoids in the treatment of skin aging: an overview of clinical efficacy and safety. Clin. Interv. Aging 1, 327-348 (2006).
83. So PL, Fujimoto MA, Epstein EH Jr. Pharmacologic retinoid signaling and physiologic retinoic acid receptor signaling inhibit basal cell carcinoma tumorigenesis. Mol. Cancer Ther. 7, 1275-1284 (2008).
84. Kligman AL, Thorne EG. Topical therapy of actinic keratoses with tretinoin. In: Retinoids in Cutaneous Malignancy. Marks R (Ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, UK, 66-73 (1991).
85. Alirezai M, Dupuy P, Amblard P et al. Clinical evaluation of topical isotretinoin in the treatment of actinic keratoses. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 30, 447-451 (1994).
86. Kang S, Goldfarb MT, Weiss JS et al. Assessment of adapalene gel for the treatment of actinic keratoses and lentigines: a randomized trial. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 49, 83-90 (2003).
87. Peris K, Fargnoli MC, Chimenti S. Preliminary observations on the use of topical tazarotene to treat basal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 341, 1767-1768 (1999).
88. Szeimies RM, Bichel J, Ortonne JP, Stockfleth E, Lee J, Meng TC. A phase II dose-ranging study of topical resiquimod to treat actinic keratosis. Br. J. Dermatol. 159, 205-210 (2008).
89. Meyer T, Surber C, French LE, Stockfleth E. Resiquimod, a topical drug for viral skin lesions and skin cancer. Expert Opin Investig. Drugs 22, 149-159 (2013).
90. Campione E, Diluvio L, Paternò EJ, Chimenti S. Topical treatment of actinic keratoses with piroxicam 1% gel: a preliminary open-label study utilizing a new clinical score. Am. J. Clin. Dermatol. 11, 45-50 (2010).
91. Cuevas P, Arrazola JM. Treatment of basal cell carcinoma with dobesilate. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 53, 526-527 (2005).
92. Cuevas Sánchez P, Espinoza W, Pérez C, Angulo J, Giménez-Gallego G. Topical treatment of actinic keratoses with potassium dobesilate 5% cream. A preliminary open-label study. Eur. J. Med. Res. 16, 67-70 (2011).
93. Cuevas P, Angulo J, Cuevas-Bourdier A, Salgüero I, Giménez-Gallego G. Treatment of infiltrative basal cell carcinomas by inhibiting the fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3 signalling pathways. J. Cancer Sci. Ther. doi:10.4172/1948-5956. S3-003 (2011).
94. Dehelean CA, Soica C, Ledeţi I et al. Study of the betulin enriched birch bark extracts effects on human carcinoma cells and ear inflammation. Chem. Cent. J. 6, 137 (2012).
95. Huyke C, Reuter J, Rödig M et al. Treatment of actinic keratoses with a novel betulin-based oleogel. A prospective, randomized, comparative pilot study. J. Dtsch. Dermatol. Ges. 7, 128-133 (2009).
96. Liu LS, Colegio OR. Molecularly targeted therapies for nonmelanoma skin cancers. Int. J. Dermatol. 52, 654-665 (2013).
97. Cirrone F, Harris CS. Vismodegib and the hedgehog pathway: a new treatment for basal cell carcinoma. Clin. Ther. 34, 2039-2050 (2012).
98. Ganti AK, Kessinger A. Systemic therapy for disseminated basal cell carcinoma: an uncommon manifestation of a common cancer. Cancer Treat. Rev. 37, 440-43 (2011).
99. Sekulic A, Migden MR, Oro AE et al. Efficacy and safety of vismodegib in advanced basal-cell carcinoma. N. Engl. J. Med. 366, 2171-2179 (2012).
100. Dlugosz A, Agrawal S, Kirkpatrick P. Vismodegib. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 11, 437-438 (2012).
101. Tang JY, Mackay-Wiggan JM, Aszterbaum et al. Inhibiting the hedgehog pathway in patients with the basal-cell nevus syndrome. N. Engl. J. Med. 366, 2180-2188 (2012).
102. O'Bryan K, Sherman W, Niedt GW et al. An evolving paradigm for the workup and management of high-risk cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 69, 595-602 (2013).
103. Dubas LE, Ingraffea A. Nonmelanoma skin cancer. Facial Plast. Surg. Clin. North Am. 21, 43-53 (2013).
104. Maubec E, Petrow P, Scheer-Senyarich I et al. Phase II study of cetuximab as first-line single-drug therapy in patients with unresectable squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. J. Clin. Oncol. 29, 3419-3426 (2011).
105. Preneau S, Rio E, Brocard A et al. Efficacy of cetuximab in the treatment of squamous cell carcinoma. J. Dermatolog. Treat. doi:10.319/09546634.2012. 751481 (2013) (Epub ahead of print).
106. Giacchero D, Barrière J, Benezery K et al. Efficacy of cetuximab for unresectable or advanced cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma - a report of eight cases. Clin. Oncol. (R. Coll. Radiol.) 23, 716-718 (2011).
107. Lewis CM, Glisson BS, Feng L et al. A phase II study of gefitinib for aggressive cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck. Clin. Cancer Res. 18, 1435-1446 (2012).
108. Kawakami Y, Nakamura K, Nishibu A et al. Regression of cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma in a patient with chronic myeloid leukaemia on imatinib mesylate treatment. Acta Derm. Venereol. 88, 185-186 (2008).
109. Engelhardt C, Curiel-Lewandrowski C, Warneke J, Cranmer L. Metastatic cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma responding to erlotinib therapy. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 65, 237-238 (2011).
110. Ramadan KM, McKenna KE, Morris TC. Clinical response of cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma to bortezomib given for myeloma. Lancet Oncol. 7, 958-959 (2006).
111. DeConti RC. Chemotherapy of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin. Semin. Oncol. 39, 145-149 (2012).
112. Cranmer LD, Engelhardt C, Morgan SS. Treatment of unresectable and metastatic cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma. Oncologist 15, 1320-1328 (2010).
113. Fecher LA. Systemic therapy for inoperable and metastatic basal cell cancer. Curr. Treat. Options Oncol. 14, 237-248 (2013).
114. Pfeiffer P, Hansen O, Rose C. Systemic cytotoxic therapy of basal cell carcinoma. A review of the literature. Eur. J. Cancer 26, 73-77 (1990).
115. Moeholt K, Aagaard H, Pfeiffer P et al. Platinum based cytotoxic therapy in basal cell carcinoma - a review of the literature. Acta Oncol. 35, 677-682 (1996).
116. Sadek H, Azli N, Wendling JL et al. Treatment of advanced squamous cell carcinoma of the skin with cisplatin, 5-fluorouracil, and bleomycin. Cancer 66, 1692-1696 (1990).
117. Behshad R, Garcia-Zuazaga J, Bordeaux JS. Systemic treatment of locally advanced nonmetastatic cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma: a review of the literature. Br. J. Dermatol. 165, 1169-1177 (2011).
118. Ceilley RI, Jorizzo JL. Current issues in the management of actinic keratosis. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 68, S28-S38 (2013).
119. Micali G, Lacarrubba F, Massimino D, Schwartz RA. Dermatoscopy: alternative uses in daily clinical practice. J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. 64, 1135-1146 (2011).
120. Lacarrubba F, D'Amico V, Nasca MR, Dinotta F, Micali G. Use of dermatoscopy and videodermatoscopy in therapeutic follow up: a review. Int. J. Dermatol. 49, 866-873 (2010).
121. Gupta AK, Paquet M, Villanueva E, Brintnell W. Interventions for actinic keratoses. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 12, CD004415 (2012).