Renewable Energy Resources - Ocean Energy. Wind-Wave-Tidal-Sea Currents.

Climate Vulnerability: Understanding and Addressing Threats to Essential Resources

Volumn 3, Issue , 2013, Pages 65-81

  Pryor, S C ^a   Barthelmie, R J ^a  

^a INDIANA UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Climate change; Resource; Technology; Tidal currents; Wave energy devices; Wind turbines

Indexed keywords

CLIMATE CHANGE; MARINE BIOLOGY; OCEAN CURRENTS; WAVE ENERGY CONVERSION; WIND TURBINES;

CURRENT ABILITY; ELECTRICITY DEMANDS; MARINE RESOURCES; RECOVERABLE ENERGY; RESOURCE; TIDAL CURRENTS; TIDAL VARIATIONS; WAVE ENERGY DEVICES;

TIDAL POWER;

EID: 84886582726     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-384703-4.00311-7     Document Type: Chapter

References (178)

1. Abbatt J., Molina M.J. Status of stratospheric ozone depletion. Ann. Rev. Energ. Environ. 1993, 18:1-29.
2. Agarwal P., Manuel L. Extreme loads for an offshore wind turbine using statistical extrapolation from limited field data. Wind Energy 2008, 11:673-684.
3. Allan G., Gilmartin M., McGregor P., Swales K. Levelised costs of wave and tidal energy in the UK: cost competitiveness and the importance of "banded" renewable obligation certificates. Energy Policy 2011, 39:23-39.
4. Arinaga R.A., Cheung K.F. Atlas of global wave energy from 10 years of reanalysis and hindcast data. Renew. Energ. 2012, 39:49-64.
5. Atwater J.F., Lawrence G.A. Regulatory, design and methodological impacts in determining tidal-in-stream power resource potential. Energy Policy 2011, 39:1694-1698.
6. Bae Y.H., Kim K.O., Choi B.H. Lake Sihwa tidal power plant project. Ocean Eng. 2010, 37:454-463.
7. Bahaj A.S. Generating electricity from the oceans. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2012, 15:3399-3416.
8. Barker A., Timco G., Gravesen H., Volund P. Ice loading on Danish wind turbines - part 1: dynamic model tests. Cold Regions Sci. Technol. 2005, 41:1-23.
9. Barthelmie R.J., Bryden I., Coelingh J., Pryor S.C. Energy from the Oceans: Wind, Wave and Tidal. Seas at the Millennium 2000, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 303-321. C. Sheppard (Ed.).
10. Barthelmie R.J., Badger J., Pryor S.C., Hasager C.B., Christiansen M.B., Jørgensen B.H. Wind speed gradients in the coastal offshore environment: issues pertaining to design and development of large offshore wind farms. Wind Eng. 2007, 31:369-382.
11. Bedard R., Jacobson P.T., Previsic M., Musial W., Varley R. An overview of ocean renewable energy technologies. Oceanography 2010, 23:22-31.
12. Bengtsson L., Hodges K., Roeckner E. Storm tracks and climate change. J. Clim. 2006, 19:3518-3543.
13. Bergdahl L., Trumans J., Eskilsson C. Wave loads on wind-power plants in deep and shallow water. Wind Energy 2007, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 7-13.
14. Bernitsas M.M., Raghavan K., Ben-Simon Y., Garcia E.M.H. VIVACE (vortex induced vibration aquatic clean energy): a new concept in generation of clean and renewable energy from fluid flow. J. Offshore Mech. Arct. Eng. Trans. ASME 2008, 130. 10.1115/1111.2957913.
15. Bernstein L., Coauthors Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report Summary for Policymakers 2007, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.
16. Blanchfield J., Garrett C., Rowe A., Wild P. Tidal stream power resource assessment for Masset Sound, Haida Gwaii. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part A. J. Pow. Energ. 2008, 222:485-492.
17. Bloom A., Kotroni V., Lagouvardos K. Climate change impact of wind energy availability in the Eastern Mediterranean using the regional climate model PRECIS. Nat. Hazard Earth Syst. Sci. 2008, 8:1249-1257.
18. Boehlert G.W., Gill A.B. Environmental and ecological effects of ocean renewable energy development: a current synthesis. Oceanography 2010, 23:68-81.
19. Breslow P.B., Sailor D.J. Vulnerability of wind power resources to climate change in the continental United States. Renew. Energ. 2002, 27:585-598.
20. Burrows R., Tickell R.G., Hames D., Najafian G. Morison wave force coefficients for application to random seas. Appl. Ocean Res. 1997, 19:183-199.
21. Burrows R., Coauthors Tidal energy potential in UK waters. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Marit. Eng. 2009, 162:155-164.
22. Casas-Prat M., Sierra J.P. Trend analysis of wave storminess: wave direction and its impact on harbour agitation. Nat. Hazard Earth Syst. Sci. 2010, 10:2327-2340.
23. Chang E.K.M., Lee S.Y., Swanson K.L. Storm track dynamics. J. Clim. 2002, 15:2163-2183.
24. Chen L., Li D., Pryor S.C. Assessing performance of nine IPCC AR5 climate models in simulating and projecting wind speeds over China. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, (in review) Manuscript # 2012JD017533.
25. Christensen E.D., Hansen E.A., Yde L., Tarp-Johansen N.J., Gravessen H., Damsgaard M.L. Wave loads on offshore wind turbine foundations in shallow water. European Offshore Wind Energy Conference 2007, Berlin, 10 pp.
26. Clarke J.A., Connor G., Grant A.D., Johnstone C.M. Regulating the output characteristics of tidal current power stations to facilitate better base load matching over the lunar cycle. Renew. Energ. 2006, 31:173-180.
27. Clausen N.E., Lundsager P., Barthelmie R.J., Holttinen H., Laakso T., Pryor S.C. Wind Power. Impacts of Climate Change on Renewable Energy Sources 2007, Norden, Copenhagen, 105-128. J. Fenger (Ed.).
28. Clery D. Renewable energy - U.K. ponders world's biggest tidal power scheme. Science 2008, 320:1574.
29. Colwell S., Basu B. Tuned liquid column dampers in offshore wind turbines for structural control. Eng. Struct. 2009, 31:358-368.
30. Cornett A. A global wave energy resource assessment. Sea Technol. 2009, 50:59-64.
31. Cruz J., Coauthors Full-Scale WECs. Ocean Wave Energy 2008, Springer, Berlin Heidelberg, 287-395.
32. Dabberdt W., Lenschow D., Horst T., Zimmerman P., Oncley S., Delany A. Atmosphere-surface exchange measurements. Science 1993, 260:1472-1481.
33. Dalili N., Edrisy A., Carriveau R. A review of surface engineering issues critical to wind turbine performance. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2009, 13:428-438.
34. de Elia R., Cote H. Climate and climate change sensitivity to model configuration in the Canadian RCM over North America. Meteorol. Z. 2010, 19:325-339.
35. de Vries E. The DEWI report: wind energy study 2008. Renew. Energ. World 2008, 93-101.
36. de Vries E. Optimism in offshore wind. Renew. Energ. World 2009, 27-37.
37. del Rio P. Analysing future trends of renewable electricity in the EU in a low-carbon context. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2011, 15:2520-2533. 10.1016/j.rser.2010.12.013.
38. Dekker J.W.M., Pierik J.T.G. European Wind Turbine Standards II, Vol ECN-C-99-073. ECN Solar and Wind Energy, Petten del Rio P. (2011) Analysing future trends of renewable electricity in the EU in a low-carbon context. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 1999, 15:2520-2533.
39. Delworth T.L., Coauthors GFDL's CM2 global coupled climate models - part 1: formulation and simulation characteristics. J. Clim. 2006, 19:643-674.
40. Denny E. The economics of tidal energy. Energy Policy 2009, 37:1914-1924.
41. Devine-Wright P. Enhancing local distinctiveness fosters public acceptance of tidal energy: a UK case study. Energy Policy 2011, 39:83-93.
42. Ditlevsen O. Stochastic model for joint wave and wind loads on offshore structures. Struct. Saf. 2002, 24:139-163.
43. DNV/Risø Guidelines for the Design of Wind Turbines 2002, Jydsk centraltrykkeri, Copenhagen, Denmark.
44. Duguay M.A. Solar energy - prospects for OTEC. Science 1977, 198. 990-992.
45. Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation: Special Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2012, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. O. Edenhofer, Coauthors (Eds.).
46. Emanuel K. Increasing destructiveness of tropical cyclones over the past 30 years. Nature 2005, 436:686-688.
47. Etling D., Brown R.A. Roll vortices in the planetary boundary layer: a review. Bound. Lay. Meteorol. 1993, 65:215-248.
48. European Wind Energy Association Wind Energy. The Facts. A Guide to the Technology, Economics and Future of Wind Power 2009, Earthscan, London.
49. European Wind Energy Association E, 2009b: Oceans of opportunity, EWEA. [Available online at .]. http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/Offshore_Report_2009.pdf.
50. European Wind Energy Association E, 2009c: Pure power: wind energy targets for 2020 and 2030, EWEA. [Available online at .]. http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_documents/documents/publications/reports/Pure_Power_Full_Report.pdf.
51. Frandsen S. Turbulence and Turbulence-Generated Fatigue Loading in Wind Turbine Clusters 2007, Risoe National Laboratory, Roskilde, 128 pp.
52. Frefri L., Infield D. Renewable Energy in Power Systems 2008, John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Chichester, U.K.
53. Gill A.B. Offshore renewable energy: ecological implications of generating electricity in the coastal zone. J. Appl. Ecol. 2005, 42:605-615.
54. Giorgi F., Lionello P. Climate change projections for the Mediterranean region. Global Planet. Change 2008, 63:90-104.
55. Global Wind Energy Council Global Wind Report: Annual Market Update 2010 2011, Global Wind Energy Council, Brussels, Belgium.
56. Goa Y. China funds development of new tidal current energy devices to help expand the country's use of marine renewable. Sea Technol. 2011, 52:45-46.
57. Gohlke J.M., Thomas R., Woodward A., Campbell-Lendrum D., Pruess-Uestuen A., Hales S., Portier C.J. Estimating the global public health implications of electricity and coal consumption. Environ. Health Perspect. 2011, 119:821-826.
58. Grabemann I., Weisse R. Climate change impact on extreme wave conditions in the North Sea: an ensemble study. Ocean Dynam. 2008, 58:199-212.
59. Graham L.P., Coauthors Assessment of Climate Change for the Baltic Sea Basin 2008, Springer, 133-219. B.A.C.C. Author team (Ed.).
60. Gravesen H., Sørensen S., Vølund P., Barker A., Timco G. Ice loading on Danish wind turbines: part 2. Analyses of dynamic model test results. Cold Regions Sci. Technol. 2005, 41:25-47.
61. Grecian W.J., Inger R., Attrill M.J., Bearhop S., Godley B.J., Witt M.J., Votier S.C. Potential impacts of wave-powered marine renewable energy installations on marine birds. IBIS 2010, 152:683-697.
62. Green R., Vasilakos N. The economics of offshore wind. Energy Policy 2011, 39:496-502.
63. Grinsted A., Moore J.C., Jevrejeva S. Reconstructing sea level from paleo and projected temperatures 200 to 2100 AD. Clim. Dynam. 2009, 34:461-472.
64. Harding A.E., Gachon P., Nguyen V.T.V. Replication of atmospheric oscillations, and their patterns, in predictors derived from atmosphere-ocean global climate model output. Int. J. Climatol. 2011, 31:1841-1847.
65. Haugen J.E., Iversen T. Response in extremes of daily precipitation and wind from a downscaled multi-model ensemble of anthropogenic global climate change scenarios. Tellus Series A - Dynamic Meteorology and Oceanography 2008, 60:411-426.
66. Heath T.V. A review of oscillating water columns. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 2012, 370:235-245.
67. Held I.M. Large-scale dynamics and global warming. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 1993, 74:228-241.
68. Henderson A.R. Offshore Wind Energy in Deep Waters. Offshore Wind Energy 2009, Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd., Brentwood UK, 189-208. J. Twidell, G. Gaudiosi (Eds.).
69. Hochart C., Fortin G., Perron J. Wind turbine performance under icing conditions. Wind Energy 2008, 11:319-333.
70. Hoogwijk M., de Vries B., Turkenburg W. Assessment of the global and regional geographical, technical and economic potential of onshore wind energy. Energy Econ. 2004, 26:889-919.
71. Hughes M.G., Heap A.D. National-scale wave energy resource assessment for Australia. Renew. Energ. 2010, 35:1783-1791.
72. IEA/OECD Energy Technologies at the Cutting Edge 2007, International Energy Technology Collaboration-IEA Implementing Agreements, Paris, France.
73. International Energy Agency Deploying Renewables: Principles for Effective Policies 2008, OECD/IEA, [Available online from. http://www.iea.org/publications/free_new_Desc.asp%3FPUBS_ID%3D2046.
74. International Energy Agency World Energy Outlook: 2009 2011, OECD/IEA, World Energy Outlook 2009, Paris, France.
75. Jacob D., Coauthors Assessing the transferability of the regional climate model REMO to different coordinated regional climate downscaling experiment (CORDEX) regions. Atmosphere 2012, 3:181-199.
76. Jacobson M.Z., Delucchi M.A. Providing all global energy with wind, water, and solar power, part I: technologies, energy resources, quantities and areas of infrastructure, and materials. Energy Policy 2011, 39:1154-1169.
77. Jahromi M.J., Maswood A.I., Tseng K.-J. Long term prediction of tidal currents. IEEE Syst. J. 2011, 5:146-155.
78. Jonkman J.M. Dynamics of offshore floating wind turbines-model development and verification. Wind Energy 2009, 12:459-492.
79. Karna T., Kolari K. Mitigation of dynamic ice actions on offshore wind turbines. Third European Conference on Structural Control 2004, 3ECSC, Vienna, Austria, 4 pp.
80. Kerr D. Marine energy: getting power from tides and waves. Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. Civ. Eng. 2005, 158:32-39.
81. Krewitt W., Coauthors Role and Potential of Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency for Global Energy Supply 2009, Available from:, German Aerospace Center, Stuttgart, Germany. [Available from:. http://www.dlr.de/Portaldata/1/Resources/portal_news/newsarchiv2009_6/cc_18_2009_RE_EE_Summary.pdf.
82. Kristensen L., Casanova M., Courtney M.S., Troen I. In search of a gust definition. Bound. Lay. Meteorol. 1991, 55:91-107.
83. Laakso T., Coauthors State-of-the-Art of Wind Energy in Cold Climates 2003, VTT, Finland. [Available from:. http://arcticwind.vtt.fi/reports/state_of_the_art.pdf.
84. Larsen G.C., Hansen K.S. Rational calibration of four IEC 61400-1 extreme external conditions. Wind Energy 2008, 11:685-702.
85. Lenee-Bluhm P., Paasch R., Ozkan-Haller H.T. Characterizing the wave energy resource of the US Pacific Northwest. Renew. Energ. 2011, 36:2106-2119.
86. Lionello P., Cogo S., Galati M.B., Sanna A. The Mediterranean surface wave climate inferred from future climate scenarios. Global Planet. Change 2008, 63:152-161.
87. Liu L.Q., Liu C.X., Sun Z.Y., Han R.C. The development and application practice of neglected tidal energy in China. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2011, 15:1089-1097.
88. Lu X., McElroy M.B., Kiviluoma J. Global potential for wind-generated electricity. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2009, 106:10933-10938.
89. Macilwain C. SUPERGRID. Nature 2010, 468:624-625.
90. Mackay E.B.L., Bahaj A.S., Challenor P.G. Uncertainty in wave energy resource assessment. Part 1: historic data. Renew. Energ. 2010, 35:1792-1808.
91. Makkonen L., Ruokolainen L., Raisanen J., Tikanmaki M. Regional climate model estimates for changes in Nordic extreme events. Geophysica 2007, 43:19-42.
92. Manwell J.F., McGowan J., Rogers A.L. Wind Energy Explained: Theory, Design and Application 2002, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK.
93. Marcos M., Jordà G., Gomis D., Pérez B. Changes in storm surges in southern Europe from a regional model under climate change scenarios. Global Planet. Change 2011, 77:116-128.
94. Masden E.A., Haydon D.T., Fox A.D., Furness R.W., Bullman R., Desholm M. Barriers to movement: impacts of wind farms on migrating birds. ICES J. Mar. Sci. 2009, 66:746-753.
95. May W. Potential future changes in the characteristics of daily precipitation in Europe simulated by the HIRHAM regional climate model. Clim. Dynam. 2008, 30:581-603.
96. Mearns L.O., Gutowski W., Jones R., Leung R., McGinnis S., Nunes A., Qian Y. A regional climate change assessment program for North America. EOS 2009, 90:311-312.
97. Meier H.E.M. Baltic Sea climate in the late 21st century: a dynamical downscaling approach using two global models and two emission scenarios. Clim. Dynam. 2006, 27:39-68.
98. Milford E. Record growth for wind: what comes next?. Renew. Energ. World 2008, 37-47.
99. Mitsuta Y., Tsukamoto O. Studies on spatial structure of wind gust. J. Appl. Meteorol. 1989, 28:1155-1160.
100. Mueller M., Wallace R. Enabling science and technology for marine renewable energy. Energy Policy 2008, 36:4376-4382.
101. Emissions Scenarios 2000, Cambridge University Press, UK. N. Nakicenovic, R. Swart (Eds.).
102. News 2008 sees wind breaking all records. Renew. Energ. World 2009, 12. 10 pp.
103. O'Gorman P.A. Understanding the varied response of the extratropical storm tracks to climate change. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 2011, 107:19176-19180.
104. O'Rourke F., Boyle F., Reynolds A. Tidal current energy resource assessment in Ireland: current status and future update. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2010, 14:3206-3212.
105. Pal J.S., Coauthors Regional climate modeling for the developing world - the ICTP RegCM3 and RegCNET. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 2007, 88:1395-1409.
106. Peña A., Gryning S.E. Charnock's roughness length model and non-dimensional wind profiles over the sea. Bound. Lay. Meteorol. 2008, 128:191-203.
107. Pielke R.A., Wilby R.L. Regional climate downscaling - what's the point?. EOS 2012, 93:52-53.
108. Price R. Trends in emerging tidal and wave energy collection technology. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 2009, 43:101-116.
109. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J. Comparison of potential power production at onshore and offshore sites. Wind Energy 2001 2001, 4:173-181.
110. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J. Climate change impacts on wind energy: a review. Renew. Sust. Energ. Rev. 2010, 14:430-437.
111. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J. Assessing climate change impacts on the near-term stability of the wind energy resource over the USA. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 2011, 108:8167-8171.
112. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J. Assessing the vulnerability of wind energy to climate change and extreme events. Climatic Change 2012, (in review).
113. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J. Vulnerability of the energy system to extreme wind speeds and icing. Climate Change in the Midwest Impacts, Risks, Vulnerability and Adaptation 2012, To be published by Indiana University Press., Bloomington. S.C. Pryor (Ed.).
114. Pryor S.C., Schoof J.T. Importance of the SRES in projections of climate change impacts on near-surface wind regimes. Meteorol. Z. 2010, 19:267-274.
115. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J., Kjellström E. Analyses of the potential climate change impact on wind energy resources in northern Europe using output from a regional climate model. Clim. Dynam. 2005, 25:815-835.
116. Pryor S.C., Schoof J.T., Barthelmie R.J. Climate change impacts on wind speeds and wind energy density in northern Europe: results from empirical downscaling of multiple AOGCMs. Clim. Res. 2005, 29:183-198.
117. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J., Schoof J.T. Inter-annual variability of wind indices across Europe. Wind Energy 2006, 9:27-38.
118. Pryor S.C., Schoof J.T., Barthelmie R.J. Winds of change? Projections of near-surface winds under climate change scenarios. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33. 10.1029/2006GL026000.
119. Pryor S.C., Coauthors Wind speed trends over the contiguous United States. J. Geophys. Res. 2009, 114. D14105, 10.1029/2008JD011416.
120. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J., Clausen N.E., Drews M., MacKellar N., Kjellstrom E. Analyses of possible changes in intense and extreme wind speeds over northern Europe under climate change scenarios. Clim. Dynam. 2012, 38:189-208. http://dx.doi.org/110.1007/s00382-00010-00955-00383.
121. Pryor S.C., Barthelmie R.J., Schoof J.T. Past and future wind climates over the contiguous USA based on the NARCCAP model suite. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, (in review) (2012JD017449).
122. Pryor S.C., Nikulin G., Jones C. Influence of spatial resolution on regional climate model derived wind climates. J. Geophys. Res. 2012, 117:D03117. 10.1029/03110.01029/02011JD016822.
123. Rahmstorf S. Response to comments on "A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise.". Science 2007, 317. 1866.
124. Rahmstorf S. A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise. Science 2007, 315:368-370.
125. Rahmstorf S. Response to comments on "A semi-empirical approach to projecting future sea-level rise" (28 September 2008, 1866 pp). Science 2008, 322. 192.
126. Reeve D.E., Chen Y., Pan S., Magar V., Simmonds D.J., Zacharioudaki A. An investigation of the impacts of climate change on wave energy generation: The Wave Hub, Cornwall, UK. Renew. Energ. 2011, 36:2404-2413.
127. Renewable Energy World Wave and tidal energy on the rise: but will it work?. Renew. Energ. World 2011, January 25, 2011.
128. Resch G., Held A., Faber T., Panzer C., Toro F., Haas R. Potentials and prospects for renewable energies at global scale. Energy Policy 2008, 36:4048-4056.
129. Revfeim K.J.A., Hessell W.D. More realistic distributions for extreme wind gusts. Q. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc. 1984, 110:505-515.
130. Rockel B., Woth K. Extreme of near-surface wind speed over Europe and their future changes as estimated from an ensemble of RCM simulation. Climatic Change 2007, 81:267-280.
131. Roeckner E., Coauthors Sensitivity of simulated climate to horizontal and vertical resolution in the ECHAM5 atmosphere model. J. Clim. 2006, 19:3771-3791.
132. Rourke F.O., Boyle F., Reynolds A. Tidal energy update 2009. Appl. Energy 2010, 87:398-409.
133. Saigal R. K., D. Dolan, A. Der Kiureghian, T. Camp, C. Smith, 2007: Comparison of design guidelines for offshore wind energy systems, Offshore Technology Conference, p OTC 18984-PP.
134. Sailor D.J., Smith M., Hart M. Climate change implications for wind power resources in the Northwest United States. Renew. Energ. 2008, 2393-2406.
135. Scinocca J.F., McFarlane N.A., Lazare M., Li J., Plummer D. Technical Note: the CCCma third generation AGCM and its extension into the middle atmosphere. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2008, 8:7055-7074.
136. Seymour R.J. Evidence for changes to the Northeast Pacific wave climate. J. Coastal Res. 2011, 27:194-201.
137. Smedman A.S., Hogstrom U., Bergstrom H. Low level jets - a decisive factor for off-shore wind energy siting in the Baltic Sea. Wind Eng. 1996, 20:137-147.
138. Smedman A., Hogstrom U., Bergstrom H., Rutgersson A., Kahma K., Petterson H. A case study of air-sea interaction during swell conditions. J. Geophys. Res. 1999, 104:25833-25851.
139. Soomere T., Raamet A. Long-term spatial variations in the Baltic Sea wave fields. Ocean Sci. 2011, 7:141-150.
140. Sterl A., van den Brink H., de Vries H., Haarsma R., van Meijgaard E. An ensemble study of extreme storm surge related water levels in the North Sea in a changing climate. Ocean Sci. 2009, 5:369-378.
141. Stoner A.M.K., Hayhoe K., Wuebbles D.J. Assessing general circulation model simulations of atmospheric teleconnection patterns. J. Clim. 2009, 22:4348-4372.
142. Strengers Y. Air-conditioning Australian households: the impact of dynamic peak pricing. Energy Policy 2010, 38:7312-7322.
143. Takagi H., Kashihara H., Esteban M., Shibayama T. Assessment of future stability of breakwaters under climate change. Coastal Eng. J. 2011, 53:21-39.
144. Tarp-Johanssen N.-J. Partial safety factors and characteristic values for combined extreme wind and wave load effects. J. Sol. Energ. Eng. 2005, 127:242-252.
145. Tedd J., Kofoed J.P. Measurements of overtopping flow time series on the wave dragon, wave energy converter. Renew. Energ. 2009, 34:711-717.
146. Tester J.W., Drake E.M., Driscoll M.J., Golay M.W., Peters W.A. Sustainable Energy: Choosing Among Options 2005, MIT Press, Cambridge, USA.
147. Tokinaga H., Xie S.-P. Wave- and anemometer-based sea surface wind (WASWind) for climate change analysis. J. Clim. 2011, 24:267-285.
148. Tokinaga H., Xie S.-P. Weakening of the equatorial Atlantic cold tongue over the past six decades. Nat. Geosci. 2011, 4:222-226.
149. Tougaard J., Henriksen O.D., Miller L.A. Underwater noise from three types of offshore wind turbines: estimation of impact zones for harbor porpoises and harbor seals. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 2009, 125:3766-3773.
150. UK Department of Energy and Climate Change Digest of United Kingdom Energy Statistics (DUKES) 2010, UK Department of Energy and Climate Change, London.
151. US Army Corps of Engineers Chapter 1: Water wave mechanics. Coastal Engineering Manual - Part II 2008, 127. EM 1110-2-1100, US Army Corps of Engineers, [Available from:. http://140.194.76.129/publications/eng-manuals/em1110-2-1100/PartII/Part_II-Chap_1.pdf.
152. U.S.Department of Energy: Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Wind and Water Power Program. 2009 Peer Review Report 2009, U.S. Department of Energy: Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy.
153. van der Temple J. Offshore Turbines Dynamics and Fatigue. Offshore Wind Energy 2009, Multi-Science Publishing Co. Ltd., Brentwood UK, 151-188. J. Twidell, G. Gaudiosi (Eds.).
154. Van Paepegem W., Blommaert C., De Baere I., Degrieck J., De Backer G., De Rouck J., Degroote J., Vierendeels J., Matthys S., Taerwe L. Slamming wave impact of a composite Buoy for wave energy applications: design and large-scale testing. Polym. Compos. 2011, 32:700-713.
155. Vega L.A. Ocean thermal energy conversion primer. Mar. Technol. Soc. J. 2003, 6:25-35.
156. Veldkamp H.K., van der Tempel J. Influence of wave modelling on the prediction of fatigue for offshore wind turbines. Wind Energy 2005, 8:49-65..
157. Villarini G., Vecchi G.A., Knutson T.R., Zhao M., Smith J.A. North Atlantic tropical storm frequency response to anthropogenic forcing: projections and sources of uncertainty. J. Clim. 2011, 24:3224-3238.
158. von Bismarck M., Gurung A., Liebreich M., Greenwood C. Green investing. Towards a clean energy infrastructure. Energy Bull. 2009, 3:6-23.
159. Vølund P. Concrete is the future for offshore foundations. Wind Eng. 2005, 29:531-539.
160. Walkington I., Burrows R. Modelling tidal stream power potential. Appl. Ocean Res. 2009, 31:239-245.
161. Walter A., Coauthors A high resolution reference data set of German wind velocity 1951-2001 and comparison with regional climate model results. Meteorol. Z. 2006, 15:585-596.
162. Wang X., Zwiers F., Swail V. North Atlantic ocean wave climate change scenarios for the twenty first century. J. Clim. 2004, 17:2368-2383.
163. Wang X.L.L., Zwiers F.W., Swail V.R., Feng Y. Trends and variability of storminess in the Northeast Atlantic region, 1874-2007. Clim. Dynam. 2009, 33:1179-1195.
164. Weisse R., von Storch H. Past and future changes in wind, wave and storm surge climates. Marine Climate and Climate Change: Storms, Wind Waves and Storm Surges 2010, Springer Praxis Books, London, 165-203.
165. Weisse R., Coauthors Regional meteorological-marine reanalyses and climate change projections results for Northern Europe and potential for coastal and offshore applications. Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc. 2009, 90:849-860.
166. Wentz F.J., Ricciardulli L. Comment on "global trends in wind speed and wave height". Science 2011, 334. 10.1126/science.1210317.
167. Wentz F.J., Ricciardulli L., Hilburn K., Mears C. How much more rain will global warming bring?. Science 2007, 317:233-235.
168. Westphalen, J., and Coauthors, 2009: Extreme wave loading on offshore wave energy devices using CFD: a hierarchical team approach, Proceedings of the 8th European Wave and Tidal Energy Conference, Uppsala, Sweden, 500-508.
169. Winterfeldt J., Geyer B., Weisse R. Using QuikSCAT in the added value assessment of dynamically downscaled wind speed. Int. J. Climatol. 2011, 31:1028-1039.
170. Wolfram J. On alternative approaches to linearization and Morison's equation for wave forces. Proc. Roy. Soc. Lond. Ser. A Math. Phys. Eng. Sci. 1999, 455:2957-2974.
171. Wu Y.H., Raman S. Effect of land-use pattern on the development of low-level jets. J. Appl. Meteorol. 1997, 36:573-590.
172. Yan Q., Yue Q.J., Bi X.J., Tuomo K. A random ice force model for narrow conical structures. Cold Regions Sci. Technol. 2006, 45:148-157.
173. Yin J.J., Schlesinger M.E., Stouffer R.J. Model projections of rapid sea-level rise on the northeast coast of the United States. Nat. Geosci. 2009, 2:262-266.
174. Young I.R., Babanin A.V., Zieger S. Response to comment on "global trends in wind speed and wave height.". Science 2011, 334. 10.1126/science.1210548.
175. Young I.R., Zieger S., Babanin A.V. Global trends in wind speed and wave height. Science 2011, 332:451-455.
176. Zacharioudaki A., Pan S., Simmonds D., Magar V., Reeve D.E. Future wave climate over the west-European shelf seas. Ocean Dynam. 2011, 61:807-827.
177. Zhang T., Nuttall W.J. Evaluating government's policies on promoting smart metering diffusion in retail electricity markets via agent-based simulation. J. Prod. Innovat. Manag. 2011, 28:169-186.
178. Zhang D.H., Li W., Lin Y.G. Wave energy in China: current status and perspectives. Renew. Energ. 2009, 34:2089-2092.