Just Sentencing: Principles and Procedures for a Workable System

Just Sentencing: Principles and Procedures for a Workable System

Volumn , Issue , 2013, Pages 1-304

  Frase, Richard S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA   (United States)

Author keywords

Limiting retributivism; Model Penal Code; Parsimony; Proportionality; Purposes of punishment; Racial disparity; Sentencing; Sentencing commission; Sentencing guidelines; Sentencing theory

Indexed keywords

EID: 84886412059     PISSN: None     EISSN: None     Source Type: Book    
DOI: 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199757862.001.0001     Document Type: Book

References (333)

1. Administrative Office of U.S. Courts. 1991. Federal Offenders in the United States Courts, 1986 through 1990. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
2. Albrecht, Hans-Jörg. 1995. "Sentencing in the Federal Republic of Germany." Federal Sentencing Reporter 7: 305-7.
3. Albrecht, Hans-Jörg. 2001. "Post-Adjudication Dispositions in Comparative Perspective." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
4. Alexander, Larry, and Kimberly Kessler Ferzan. 2009. Crime and Culpability: A Theory of Criminal Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
5. Alexander, Michelle. 2010. The New Jim Crow: Mass Incarceration in the Age of Color Blindness. New York: New Press.
6. Allen, Francis. 1981. The Decline of the Rehabilitative Ideal: Penal Policy and Social Purposes. New Haven: Yale University Press.
7. American Bar Association. 1968a. Standards Relating to the Administration of Criminal Justice: Pleas of Guilty. Chicago: American Bar Association.
8. American Bar Association. 1968b. Standards Relating to the Administration of Criminal Justice: Probation. Chicago: American Bar Association.
9. American Bar Association. 1968c. Standards Relating to the Administration of Criminal Justice: Sentencing Alternatives and Procedures. Chicago: American Bar Association.
10. American Bar Association. 1979a. Standards Relating to the Administration of Criminal Justice: Pleas of Guilty. 2nd ed. Chicago: American Bar Association.
11. American Bar Association. 1979b. Standards Relating to the Administration of Criminal Justice: Sentencing Alternatives and Procedures. 2nd ed. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
12. American Bar Association. 1994. ABA Standards for Criminal Justice: Sentencing. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
13. American Bar Association. 1997. ABA Standards for Criminal Justice: Pleas of Guilty. 3rd ed. Chicago: American Bar Association.
14. American Bar Association. 2004a. ABA Standards for Criminal Justice: Collateral Sanctions and Discretionary Disqualifications of Convicted Persons. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: American Bar Association.
15. American Bar Association. 2004b. American Bar Association Justice Kennedy Commission Reports with Recommendations to the ABA House of Delegates. http://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publishing/criminal_justice:section_newsletter/crimjust_kennedy_JusticeKennedyCommissionReportsFinal.authcheckdam.pdf.
16. American Law Institute. 1962. Model Penal Code, Proposed Official Draft. Philadelphia: American Law Institute.
17. American Law Institute. 1985. Model Penal Code and Commentaries (Official Draft and Revised Comments). Philadelphia: American Law Institute.
18. American Law Institute. 2003. Model Penal Code: Sentencing, Report (April 11, 2003). Philadelphia: American Law Institute.
19. American Law Institute. 2007. Model Penal Code: Sentencing, Tentative Draft No. 1 (April 9, 2007) (approved May 2007). Philadelphia: American Law Institute.
20. American Law Institute. 2011. Model Penal Code: Sentencing, Tentative Draft No. 2 (March 25, 2011) (approved May 2011). Philadelphia: American Law Institute.
21. Andenaes, Johannes. 1966. "The General Preventative Effects of Punishment." University of Pennsylvania Law Review 114: 949-83.
22. Armstrong, K. G. 1969. "The Retributivist Hits Back." In The Philosophy of Punishment: A Collection of Papers, edited by H. B. Acton. London: Macmillan.
23. Ashworth. Andrew. 1992. Sentencing and Criminal Justice. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson.
24. Ashworth. Andrew. 2010. Sentencing and Criminal Justice. 5th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25. Ashworth, Andrew, and Martin Wasik, eds. 1998. Fundamentals of Sentencing Theory: Essays in Honour of Andrew von Hirsch. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
26. Bagaric, Mirko. 2000. "Double Punishment and Punishing Character: The Unfairness of Prior Convictions." Criminal Justice Ethics 19: 10-28.
27. Bazelon, David. 1976. "The Morality of the Criminal Law." Southern California Law Review 49: 385-405.
28. Bedau, Hugo A., and Erin Kelly. 2010. "Punishment." In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/punishment.
29. Bentham, Jeremy. 1931 [1802]. The Theory of Legislation. Edited by C. K.Ogden. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
30. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1972. National Prisoner Statistics: Prisoners in State and Federal Institutions for Adult Felons, 1968, 1969, 1970. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
31. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1986. Prisoners in 1985. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
32. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1988. Prisoners in 1987. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
33. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1989. Prisoners in 1988. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
34. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1993. Prisoners in 1992. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
35. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1994. Prisoners in 1993. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
36. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1995. Prisoners in 1994. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
37. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 1996. Prison and Jail Inmates, 1995. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
38. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2000. Prisoners in 1999. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
39. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2003. Prevalence of Imprisonment in the U.S. Population, 1974-2001. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
40. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2006. Prison and Jail Inmates at Midyear 2005. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
41. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2007. Prisoners in 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
42. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2009. National Judicial Reporting Program: Felony Sentences in State Courts, 2006-Statistical Tables. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
43. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2010. State Court Processing Statistics: Felony Defendants in Large Urban Counties, 2006. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
44. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2011a. Correctional Population in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
45. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2011b. Federal Justice Statistics 2009, Statistical Tables. http://bjs.ojp.usdoj.gov/content/pub/pdf/fjs09st.pdf.
46. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2011c. Prisoners in 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
47. BJS (Bureau of Justice Statistics, U.S. Department of Justice). 2011d. Probation and Parole in the United States, 2010. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
48. Blomberg, Thomas G. 1980. "Widening the Net-An Anomaly in the Evaluation of Diversion Programs." In Handbook of Criminal Justice Evaluation, edited by Malcolm W Klein and Katherine S. Teilmann. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
49. Blumstein, Alfred. 1993. "Racial Disproportionality of U.S. Prison Populations Revisited." University of Colorado Law Review 64: 743-60.
50. Blumstein, Alfred, Jacqualine Cohen, Susan E. Martin, and Michael H. Tonry. 1983. Research on Sentencing: The Search for Reform. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
51. Blumstein, Alfred, Jacqueline Cohen, Jeffrey Roth, and Christy Visher. 1986. Criminal Careers and "Career Criminals." Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
52. Blumstein, Alfred, and Kiminori Nakamura. 2010. "Processes of Redemption Should be Built Into the Use of Criminal-History Records for Background Checking." In Contemporary Issues in Criminal Justice Policy: Policy Proposals from the American Society of Criminology Conference, edited by Natasha A. Frost, Joshua D. Freilich, and Todd R. Clear. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
53. Boardman, Jason D., Brian Karl Finch, Christopher G. Ellison, David R. Williams, and James S. Jackson. 2001. "Neighborhood Disadvantage, Stress, and Drug Use among Adults." Journal of Health and Social Behavior 42 (June): 151-65.
54. Boerner, David, and Roxanne Lieb. 2001. "Sentencing Reform in the Other Washington." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 28, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
55. Bottoms, Anthony. 1995. "The Philosophy and Politics of Punishment and Sentencing." In Clarkson and Morgan 1995.
56. Bottoms, Anthony. 1998. "Five Puzzles in von Hirsch's Theory of Punishment." In Ashworth and Wasik 1998.
57. Braithwaite, John. 1999. "Restorative Justice: Assessing Optimistic and Pessimistic Accounts." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 25, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
58. Brownlee, Ian. 1996. "Hanging Judges and Wayward Mechanics: Reply to Michael Tonry." In Penal Theory and Practice, edited by Antony Duff, Sandra Marshall, Rebecca Emerson Dobash, and Russell P. Dobash. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
59. California Legislative Analyst's Office. 2009. Achieving Better Outcomes for Adult Probation. http://www.lao.ca.gov/2009/crim/Probation/probation_052909.aspx.
60. Carnes, Teresa White. 1993. "Sentencing Reform in Alaska." Federal Sentencing Reporter 6: 134-37.
61. Caulkins, Jonathan P., and Peter Reuter. 2010. "How Drug Enforcement Affects Drug Prices." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 39, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
62. Chanenson, Steven L. 2005. "The Next Era of Sentencing Reform." Emory Law Journal 54: 377-460.
63. Clarkson, Chris, and Rod Morgan, eds. 1995. The Politics of Sentencing Reform. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
64. Clear, Todd R. 2008. "The Effects of High Imprisonment Rates on Communities." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 37, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
65. Clear, Todd R., John D. Hewitt, and Robert M. Regoli. 1978. "Discretion and the Determinate Sentence: Its Distribution, Control, and Effect on Time Served." Crime and Delinquency 24: 428-45.
66. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. 1993. Consistency in Sentencing. https://wcd.coe.int/ViewDoc.jsp?id=615757&Site=CM.
67. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. 2012a. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. http://www.eucharter.org/.
68. Council of Europe, Committee of Ministers. 2012b. Council of Europe (home page). http://www.coe.int.
69. Council on Crime and Justice. 2007. Reducing Racial Disparity While Enhancing Public Safety: Key Findings and Recommendations. http://www.racialdisparity.org/files/Final%20Report-Reducing%20Disparity %20%20Enhancing%20Safety.pdf.
70. Cullen, Francis T., Bonnie S. Fisher, and Brandon K. Applegate. 2000. "Public Opinion about Punishment and Corrections." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 27, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
71. Daly, Kathleen. 2000. "Revisiting the Relationship between Retributive and Restorative Justice." In Restorative Justice: Philosophy to Practice, edited by Heather Strang and John Braithwaite. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, Dartmouth.
72. Davis, Kenneth Culp. 1969. Discretionary Justice: A Preliminary Inquiry. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
73. Davis, Michael. 1985. "Just Deserts for Recidivists." Criminal Justice Ethics 4: 29-50.
74. DCSCCRC (District of Columbia Sentencing and Criminal Code Revision Commission). 2012. Voluntary Sentencing Guidelines Manual, June 15, 2011. http://acs.dc.gov/acs/frames.asp?doc=/acs/lib/acs/pdf/2011_Voluntary_Sentencing_Guidelines_Manual.pdf.
75. Delaware Sentencing Accountability Commission. 2012. http://cjc.delaware.gov/SENTAC/sentac.04.07.shtml.
76. Delgado, Richard. 1985. "'Rotten Social Background': Should the Criminal Law Recognize a Defense of Severe Environmental Deprivation?" Law & Inequality 3: 9-90.
77. Demleitner, Nora V., Douglas Berman, Marc Miller, and Ronald F. Wright. 2007. Sentencing Law & Policy: Cases, Statutes, and Guidelines. 2nd ed. New York: Aspen Publishers.
78. Diroll, David J. 2011. Prison Crowding: The Long View, with Suggestions: 2011 Monitoring Report. http://www.supremecourt.ohio.gov/Boards/Sentencing/resources/Publications/MonitoringReport2011.pdf.
79. Dolinko, David. 1992. "Three Mistakes of Retributivism." UCLA Law Review 39: 1623-57.
80. Dolovich, Sharon. 2009. "Incarceration American Style." Harvard Law and Policy Review 3: 237-59.
81. Doob, Anthony N., and Cheryl Marie Webster. 2003. "Sentence Severity and Crime: Accepting the Null Hypothesis." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 30, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
82. Dressler, Joshua. 2009. Understanding Criminal Law. 5th ed. Newark, NJ: LexisNexis.
83. Duff, R. Antony. 1986. Trials and Punishments. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
84. Duff, R. Antony. 1996. "Penal Communications: Recent Work in the Philosophy of Punishment." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 20, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
85. Duff, R. Antony. 2001. Punishment, Communication, and Community. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
86. Duff, R. Antony. 2010. "Legal punishment." In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/legalpunishment.
87. Durham, Alexis. 1987. "Justice in Sentencing: The Role of Prior Record of Criminal Involvement." Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 78: 614-43.
88. Durlauf, Steven N., and Daniel S. Nagin. 2011. "Imprisonment and Crime: Can Both Be Reduced?" Criminology & Public Policy 10: 13-54.
89. Ewing, Alfred C. 1929. The Morality of Punishment. London: Kegan, Paul, Trench, Trubner.
90. Factor, David. 1995. "Life Cycle of a Sentencing Commission: The Oregon Experience." Federal Sentencing Reporter 8: 93-98.
91. Feeley, Malcolm. 1992. The Process Is the Punishment. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
92. Feinberg, Joel. 1970. "The Expressive Function of Punishment." In Doing and Deserving, edited by Joel Feinberg. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
93. Fletcher, George. 1978. Rethinking Criminal Law. Boston: Little, Brown.
94. Frankel, Marvin. 1973. Criminal Sentences: Law without Order. New York: Hill & Wang.
95. Frase, Richard S. 1980. "The Decision to File Federal Criminal Charges; A Quantitative Study of Prosecutorial Discretion." University of Chicago Law Review 47: 246-330.
96. Frase, Richard S. 1990. "Comparative Criminal Justice as a Guide to American Law Reform: How Do the French Do It, How Can We Find Out, and Why Should We Care?" California Law Review 78: 539-683.
97. Frase, Richard S. 1991a. "Defendant Amenability to Treatment or Probation as a Basis for Departure under the Minnesota and Federal Sentencing Guidelines." Federal Sentencing Reporter 3: 328-33.
98. Frase, Richard S. 1991b. "Sentencing Reform in Minnesota, Ten Years After: Reflections on Dale G. Parent's Structuring Criminal Sentences: The Evolution of Minnesota's Sentencing Guidelines." Minnesota Law Review 75: 727-54.
99. Frase, Richard S. 1993a. "Implementing Commission-Based Sentencing Guidelines: The Lessons of the First Ten Years in Minnesota." Cornell Journal of Law & Public Policy 2: 279-337.
100. Frase, Richard S. 1993b. "The Role of the Legislature, the Sentencing Commission, and Other Officials under the Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines." Wake Forest Law Review 28: 345-79.
101. Frase, Richard S. 1993c. "The Uncertain Future of Sentencing Guidelines." Law & Inequality 12: 1-42.
102. Frase, Richard S. 1995. "Sentencing Laws and Practices in France." Federal Sentencing Reporter 7:275-80.
103. Frase, Richard S. 1997. "Sentencing Principles in Theory and Practice." In Crime & Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 22, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
104. Frase, Richard S. 1999. "Sentencing Guidelines in Minnesota, Other States, and the Federal Courts: A Twenty-Year Retrospective." Federal Sentencing Reporter 12: 69-82.
105. Frase, Richard S. 2001a. "International Perspectives on Sentencing Policy and Research." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
106. Frase, Richard S. 2001b. "Sentencing in Germany and the United States: Comparing Äpfel with Apples." Freiburg: Max Planck Institute. http://www.mpicc.de/shared/data/pdf/frase-endausdruck.pdf.
107. Frase, Richard S. 2004. "Limiting Retributivism." In The Future of Imprisonment, edited by Michael Tonry. New York: Oxford University Press.
108. Frase, Richard S. 2005a. "Excessive Prison Sentences, Punishment Goals, and the Eighth Amendment: 'Proportionality' Relative to What?" Minnesota Law Review 89: 571-651.
109. Frase, Richard S. 2005b. "Punishment Purposes." Stanford Law Review 58: 67-83.
110. Frase, Richard S. 2005c. "Sentencing Guidelines in Minnesota, 1978-2003." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 32, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
111. Frase, Richard S. 2005d. "State Sentencing Guidelines: Diversity, Consensus, and Unresolved Policy Issues." In "Symposium, Sentencing: What's at Stake for the States?" Columbia Law Review 105: 1190-1232.
112. Frase, Richard S. 2007. "The Apprendi-Blakely Cases: Sentencing Reform Counter-Revolution?" Criminology & Public Policy 6: 403-31.
113. Frase, Richard S. 2008a. "Limiting Excessive Prison Sentences under Federal and State Constitutions." University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law 11: 39-72.
114. Frase, Richard S. 2008b. "The Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines." In Penal Populism, Sentencing Councils and Sentencing Policy, edited by Arie Freiberg and Karen Gelb. Cullompton: Willan Publishing.
115. Frase, Richard S. 2008c. "Sentencing and Comparative Law Theory." In Crime, Procedure and Evidence in a Comparative and International Context: Essays in Honour of Professor Mirjan Damaska, edited by John Jackson, Máximo Langer, and Peter Tillers. Portland, OR: Hart Publishing.
116. Frase, Richard S. 2009a. "Norval Morris's Contributions to Sentencing Structures, Theory, and Practice." Federal Sentencing Reporter 21: 254-60.
117. Frase, Richard S. 2009b. "Second-Look Provisions in the Proposed Model Penal Code Revisions." Federal Sentencing Reporter 21: 194-202.
118. Frase, Richard S. 2009c. "What Explains Persistent Racial Disproportionality in Minnesota's Prison and Jail Populations?" In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 38, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
119. Frase, Richard S. 2010a. "Graham's Good News-and Not." Federal Sentencing Reporter 23: 54-57.
120. Frase, Richard S. 2010b. "Prior-Conviction Sentencing Enhancements: Rationales and Limits Based on Retributive and Utilitarian Proportionality Principles and Social Equality Goals." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
121. Frase, Richard S. 2011a. "Can Above-Desert Penalties Be Justified by Competing Deontological Theories?" In Retributivism Has a Past. Has It a Future? edited by Michael Tonry. New York: Oxford University Press.
122. Frase, Richard S. 2011b. "Punishment Justifications and Goals." In Oxford Bibliographies OnLine, Criminology, edited by Richard B. Rosenfeld. New York: Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordbibliographiesonline.com/.
123. Frase, Richard S. 2012. "Theories of Proportionality and Desert." In Oxford Handbook on Sentencing and Corrections, edited by Joan Petersilia and Kevin Reitz. New York: Oxford University Press.
124. Freed, Daniel J. 1992. "Federal Sentencing in the Wake of Guidelines: Unacceptable Limits on the Discretion of Sentencers." Yale Law Journal 101: 1681-1754.
125. Freiberg, Arie. 2001. "Three Strikes and You're Out-It's Not Cricket: Colonization and Resistance in Australian Sentencing." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
126. Garland, Brett E., Cassia Spohn, and Eric J. Wodahl. 2008. "Racial Disproportionality in the American Prison Population: Using the Blumstein Method to Address the Critical Race and Justice Issue of the 21st Century." Justice Policy Journal 5 (2). Available at http://www.cjcj.org/files/racial_disproportionality.pdf.
127. Gray, David. 2010. "Punishment as Suffering." Vanderbilt Law Review 63: 1619-93.
128. Greenawalt, Kent. 2001. "Punishment." In Encyclopedia of Crime and Justice, 2nd ed., vol. 3, edited by Joshua Dressler. New York: Macmillan Reference USA.
129. Griffin, Burt W., and Lewis R. Katz. 2002. "Sentencing Consistency: Basic Principles Instead of Numerical Grids." Case Western Law Review 53: 1-75.
130. Grossman, Steven. 1996. "Proportionality in Non-capital Sentencing: The Supreme Court's Tortured Approach to Cruel and Unusual Punishment." Kentucky Law Review 84: 107-72.
131. Hampton, Jean. 1984. "The Moral Education Theory of Punishment." Philosophy and Public Affairs 13: 208-38.
132. Hampton, Jean. 1988. "Punishment as Defeat." In Forgiveness and Mercy, edited by Jeffrie G. Murphy and Jean Hampton. New York: Cambridge University Press.
133. Hart, Henry M. 1958. "The Aims of the Criminal Law." Law and Contemporary Problems 23: 401-41.
134. Hart, Herbert L. A. 1968. Punishment and Responsibility: Essays in the Philosophy of Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
135. Hessick, Carissa Byrne, and F. Andrew Hessick. 2012. "Double Jeopardy as a Limit on Punishment." Cornell Law Review 97: 45-86.
136. Honderich, Ted. 1969. Punishment: The Supposed Justifications. London: Hutchinson.
137. Honderich, Ted. 2006. Punishment: The Supposed Justifications Revisited. London: Pluto Publishing.
138. ICPSR (Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research). 2012. http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/icpsrweb/ICPSR.
139. Jareborg, Nils. 1995. "The Swedish Sentencing Reform." In Clarkson and Morgan 1995.
140. Jareborg, Nils. 1998. "Why Bulk Discounts in Multiple Offence Sentencing?" In Ashworth and Wasik 1998.
141. Kansas Commissions (Kansas Sentencing Commission and Kansas Criminal Code Recodification Commission). 2009. Kansas Sentencing Proportionality Recommendations: Report on Proposed Improvements and Modifications to Kansas Sentencing Laws. http://www.accesskansas.org/ksc/2009proportionality/Proportionality_Report_Updated_1-24-09.pdf.
142. Kansas Sentencing Commission. 2010. Prison Population Reduction Options, February 2010. http://www.accesskansas.org/ksc/documents/Prison_Bed_Reduction_Letter_to_Governor_w_attachment_2_25_2010.pdf.
143. Kansas Sentencing Commission. 2011a. Fiscal Year 2010 Annual Report. http://www.accesskansas.org/ksc/documents/FY2010totalAnnualreport.pdf.
144. Kansas Sentencing Commission. 2011b. Fiscal Year 2012 Adult Inmate Prison Population Projections. http://www.accesskansas.org/ksc/documents/FY2012_Prison_Population_Projection_Report.pdf.
145. Kansas Sentencing Commission. 2011c. Kansas Sentencing Guidelines: Desk Reference Manual 2011. http://www.accesskansas.org/ksc/2011desk/2011_DRM_Text.pdf.
146. Kazemian, Lila. 2010. "Assessing the Impact of a Recidivist Sentencing Premium on Crime and Recidivism Rates." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
147. Kaufman, Whitley. 2008. "The Rise and Fall of the Mixed Theory of Punishment." International Journal of Applied Philosophy 22: 37-57.
148. Kelk, Constantijn, Lawrence Koffman, and Jos Silvis. 1993. "Sentencing Practice, Policy, and Discretion." In Criminal Justice in Europe: A Comparative Study, edited by Phil Fennel, Christopher Harding, Nico Jörg, and Bert Swart. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
149. Kim, Julia Y. S., Michael Fendrich, and Joseph Wisler. 2000. "The Validity of Juvenile Arrestees' Drug Use Reporting: A Gender Comparison." Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 37: 419-32.
150. Kirkpatrick, Laird. 1992. "Mandatory Felony Sentencing Guidelines: The Oregon Model." University of California-Davis Law Review 25: 695-713.
151. Kleinig, John. 1998. "The Hardness of Hard Treatment." In Ashworth and Wasik 1998.
152. Kolber, Adam J. 2009a. "How to Improve Empirical Desert." Brooklyn Law Review 75: 433-61.
153. Kolber, Adam J. 2009b. "The Subjective Experience of Punishment." Columbia Law Review 109: 182-236.
154. Krivo, Lauren J., and Ruth D. Peterson. 1996. "Extremely Disadvantaged Neighborhoods and Urban Crime." Social Forces 75: 619-50.
155. Lacey, Nicola. 1988. State Punishment: Political Principles and Community Values. London: Routledge.
156. Lappi-Seppäla, Tapio. 2001. "Sentencing and Punishment in Finland: The Decline of the Repressive Ideal." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
157. LEAA (Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S. Department of Justice). 1971. National Jail Census, 1970. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
158. Lear, Elizabeth T. 1993. "Is Conviction Irrelevant?" UCLA Law Review 40: 1179-1239.
159. Lee, Youngjae. 2005. "The Constitutional Right against Excessive Punishment." Virginia Law Review 91: 677-745.
160. Lee, Youngjae. 2009. "Recidivism as Omission: A Relational Account." Texas Law Review 87: 571-622.
161. Lee, Youngjae. 2010. "Repeat Offenders and the Question of Desert." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
162. Lewis, Robert J. 1999. "The Kansas Sentencing Guidelines Act." Washburn Law Journal 38: 327-83.
163. Lippke, Richard L. 2011. "Retributive Sentencing, Multiple Offenders, and Bulk Discounts." In Retributivism: Essays on Theory and Policy, edited by Mark D. White. New York: Oxford University Press.
164. Longford, Frank Pakenham (Lord). 1961. The Idea of Punishment. London: Geoffrey Chapman.
165. Loury, Glenn C. 2002. The Anatomy of Racial Inequality. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
166. Lovegrove, Austin. 2004. Sentencing the Multiple Offender: Judicial Practice and Legal Principle. Canberra: Australian Institute of Criminology.
167. Luna, Eric. 2003. "Punishment Theory, Holism, and the Procedural Conception of Restorative Justice." Utah Law Review 2003: 205-342.
168. Marchetti, Elena, and Kathleen Daly. 2004. Indigenous Courts and Justice Practices in Australia. http://www.aic.gov.au/documents/0/8/3/%7B08326CEA-3B11-4759-A25B-02C1764BCB8A%7Dtandi277.pdf.
169. Markel, Dan. 2009. "Executing Retributivism: Panetti and the Future of the Eighth Amendment." Northwestern University Law Review 103: 1163-1222.
170. Markel, Dan, and Chad Flanders. 2010. "Bentham on Stilts: The Bare Relevance of Subjectivity to Retributive Justice." California Law Review 98: 907-88.
171. Massachusetts Sentencing Commission. 2011. Survey of Sentencing Practices FY 2010. http://www.mass.gov/courts/admin/sentcomm/fy2010survey.pdf.
172. Mauer, Marc. 1997. Intended and Unintended Consequences: State Racial Disparities in Imprisonment. Washington, DC: Sentencing Project.
173. Mauer, Marc. 1999. Race to Incarcerate. New York: New Press.
174. Mauer, Marc. 2007. "Racial Impact Statements as a Means of Reducing Unwarranted Sentencing Disparities." Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law 5: 19-46.
175. Mauer, Marc. 2009. "Racial Impact Statements: Changing Policies to Address Disparities." Criminal Justice 2009 (Winter): 16-20.
176. Mauer, Marc, and David Cole. 2011. "Five Myths about Americans in Prison." Washington Post, June 17.
177. Mieczkowski, Thomas M. 1996. "The Prevalence of Drug Use in the United States." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 20, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
178. Miethe, Terrence, and Charles Moore. 1985. "Socio-economic Disparities under Determinate Sentencing Systems: A Comparison of Pre-and Postguideline Practices in Minnesota." Criminology 23: 337-63.
179. Miller, Marc, and Norval Morris. 1986. "Predictions of Dangerousness: Ethical Concerns and Proposed Limits." Notre Dame Journal of Law, Ethics, & Public Policy 2: 393-444.
180. Miller, Marc, and Ronald Wright. 2008. "The Black Box." Iowa Law Review 94: 125-96.
181. Minneapolis Star Tribune. 2010. "Editorial: State Action Is Next in Lee Case; Weaknesses in Toyota Driver's Case Haven't Been Addressed." Minneapolis Star-Tribune, November 22.
182. Minnesota Department of Corrections. 2009. Review of Guidelines for Revocation of Parole and Supervised Release: 2009 Report to the Minnesota Legislature. http://www.doc.state.mn.us/publications/legislativereports/documents/ReviewofGuidelinesforParole-ReleaseRevocation2009Report_002.pdf.
183. Missouri Sentencing Advisory Commission. 2010. Smart Sentencing, August 17. Available at http://www.mosac.mo.gov/file.jsp?id=45502.
184. Missouri Sentencing Advisory Commission. 2011. Recommended Sentencing User Guide, 2010-2011. http://www.mosac.mo.gov/file.jsp?id=45512.
185. Monahan, John. 2006. "A Jurisprudence of Risk Assessment: Forecasting Harm among Prisoners, Predators, and Patients." Virginia Law Review 92: 391-435.
186. Moore, Michael. 1997. Placing Blame: A Theory of Criminal Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
187. Morris, Herbert. 1981. "A Paternalistic Theory of Punishment." American Philosophical Quarterly 18: 263-71.
188. Morris, Norval. 1951. The Habitual Criminal. New York: Longmans, Green.
189. Morris, Norval. 1964. "Penal Sanctions and Human Rights." In Studies in Criminal Law, edited by Norval Morris and Colin Howard. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
190. Morris, Norval. 1974. The Future of Imprisonment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
191. Morris, Norval. 1977a. "Punishment, Desert and Rehabilitation." In "Equal Justice under Law." U.S. Dept. of Justice, Bicentennial Lecture Series. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
192. Morris, Norval. 1977b. "Towards Principled Sentencing." Maryland Law Review 37: 267-85.
193. Morris, Norval. 1982. Madness and the Criminal Law. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
194. Morris, Norval. 1993. "The Honest Politician's Guide to Sentencing Reform." In The Socio-economics of Crime & Justice, edited by Brian Forst. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
195. Morris, Norval, and Gordon Hawkins. 1970. The Honest Politician's Guide to Crime Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
196. Morris, Norval, and Gordon Hawkins. 1977. Letter to the President on Crime Control. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
197. Morris, Norval, and Michael Tonry. 1990. Between Prison and Probation: Intermediate Punishments in a Rational Sentencing System. New York: Oxford University Press.
198. Morse, Stephen J. 1976. "The Twilight of Welfare Criminology: A Reply to Judge Bazelon." Southern California Law Review 49: 1247-68.
199. Morse, Stephen J. 2011. "Protecting Liberty and Autonomy: Desert/Disease Jurisprudence." San Diego Law Review 48: 1077-1125.
200. MSGC (Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission). 1980. Report to the Legislature, January 1, 1980. St. Paul: Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission.
201. MSGC (Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission). 1984. The Impact of the Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines: Three Year Evaluation. St. Paul: Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission.
202. MSGC (Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission). 2011a. Sentencing Guidelines and Commentary. St. Paul: Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission.
203. MSGC (Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission). 2011b. Sentencing Practices: Annual Summary Statistics for Felony Offenders Sentenced in 2010. St. Paul: Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission.
204. MSGC (Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission). 2012. Report to the Legislature, January 2012. St. Paul: Minnesota Sentencing Guidelines Commission.
205. Murphy, Jeffrie G. 1973. "Marxism and Retribution." Philosophy and Public Affairs 2: 217-43.
206. Murphy, Jeffrie G. 2012. Punishment and the Moral Emotions: Essays on Law, Morality, and Religion. New York: Oxford University Press.
207. Murray, Charles. 2012. Coming Apart: The State of White America, 1960-2010. New York: Crown Forum.
208. Nagin, Daniel S., Francis T. Cullen, and Cheryl Lero Jonson. 2009. "Imprisonment and Reoffending." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 38, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
209. National Advisory Commission on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals. 1973. Corrections. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
210. National Association of Sentencing Commissions. 2012. http://www.thenasc.org.
211. National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws. 1978. Model Sentencing and Corrections Act. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/Digitization/55600NCJRS.pdf.
212. NCSPAC (North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission). 2009. Structured Sentencing Training and Reference Manual. http://www.nccourts.org/Courts/CRS/Councils/spac/Documents/sstrainingmanual_09.pdf.
213. NCSPAC (North Carolina Sentencing and Policy Advisory Commission). 2011. Structured Sentencing Statistical Report for Felonies and Misdemeanors: Fiscal Year 2009/10. http://www.nccourts.org/Courts/CRS/Councils/spac/Documents/statisticalrpt_fy09-10.pdf.
214. New Jersey Commission to Review Criminal Sentencing. 2007. Statutory Changes to Sentencing under the NJ Code of Criminal Justice: 1979 to the Present. http://sentencing.nj.gov/downloads/pdf/Statutory_Changes_to_Sentencing.pdf.
215. O'Hear, Michael. 2009. "Rethinking Drug Courts: Restorative Justice as a Response to Racial Injustice." Stanford Law & Policy Review 20: 463-99.
216. O'Hear, Michael. 2011. "Beyond Rehabilitation: A New Theory of Indeterminate Sentencing." American Criminal Law Review 48: 1247-88.
217. O'Hear, Michael. 2012. "Solving the Good-Time Puzzle: Why Following the Rules Should Get You Out of Prison Early." Wisconsin Law Review 2012: 195-236.
218. Oregon Criminal Justice Commission. 1997. Felony Sentencing in Oregon 1994. Salem: Oregon Criminal Justice Commission.
219. Oregon Criminal Justice Commission. 2001. Felony Sentencing in Oregon 1998. Salem: Oregon Criminal Justice Commission.
220. Oregon Criminal Justice Commission. 2012. Oregon Sentencing Guidelines. http://www.ocjc.state.or.us/CJC/SG.shtml.
221. Oregon Office of Economic Analysis. 2010. Oregon Corrections Population Forecast, April 1, 2010. http://www.oregon.gov/DAS/OEA/docs/prison/DOCForecast201004.pdf.
222. Orfield, Myron. 1997. Metropolitics: A Regional Agenda for Community and Stability. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
223. Orfield, Myron. 2002. American Metropolitics: The New Suburban Reality. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
224. Orfield, Myron, and Thomas Luce. 2009. Region: Planning the Future of the Twin Cities. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
225. Ostrom, Brian J., Matthew Kleiman, and Fred Cheesman II. 2002. Offender Risk Assessment in Virginia: A Three-Stage Evaluation. Williamsburg, VA: National Center for State Courts.
226. Packer, Herbert. 1968. The Limits of the Criminal Sanction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
227. Parent, Dale G. 1988. Structuring Criminal Sentences: The Evolution of Minnesota's Sentencing Guidelines. Stoneham, MA: Butterworth Legal Publishers.
228. Pennsylvania Commission on Sentencing. 2012. Revised Implementation Manual. 6th ed. http://pcs.la.psu.edu/guidelines/sentencing/sentencingguidelines-and-implemetation-manuals/6th-edition-revised/implementationmanual.
229. Petersilia, Joan. 1997. "Probation in the United States." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 22, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
230. Petersilia, Joan. 2003. When Prisoners Come Home: Parole and Prisoner Reentry. New York: Oxford University Press.
231. Peterson, Ruth D., and Lauren J. Krivo. 2010. Divergent Social Worlds: Neighborhood Crime and the Racial-Spatial Divide. New York: Russell Sage.
232. Piquero, Alex R., David P. Farrington, and Alfred Blumstein. 2007. Key Issues in Criminal Career Research: New Analyses of the Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
233. Posner, Richard. 1985. "An Economic Theory of the Criminal Law." Columbia Law Review 85: 1193-1231.
234. Primoratz, Igor. 1989. Justifying Legal Punishment. Amherst, NY: Humanity Books.
235. Radin, Margaret J. 1978. "The Jurisprudence of Death: Evolving Standards for the Cruel and Unusual Punishments Clause." University of Pennsylvania Law Review 126: 989-1064.
236. Rawls, John. 1955. "Two Concepts of Rules." Philosophical Review 64: 3-32.
237. Reitz, Kevin R. 1993. "Sentencing Facts: Travesties of Real Offense Sentencing." Stanford Law Review 45: 523-73.
238. Reitz, Kevin R. 1997. "Sentencing Guideline Systems and Sentence Appeals: A Comparison of Federal and State Experience." Northwestern University Law Review 91: 1441-1506.
239. Reitz, Kevin R. 1998. "Modeling Discretion in American Sentencing Systems." Law and Policy 20: 389-428.
240. Reitz, Kevin R. 2001. "The Disassembly and Reassembly of U.S. Sentencing Practices." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
241. Reitz, Kevin R. 2009. "Demographic Impact Statements, O'Connor's Warning, and the Mysteries of Prison Release: Topics from a Sentencing Reform Agenda." Florida Law Review 61: 683-707.
242. Reitz, Kevin R. 2010. "The Illusion of Proportionality: Desert and Repeat Offenders." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
243. Ristroph, Alice. 2006. "Desert, Democracy, and Sentencing Reform." Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology 96: 1293-1352.
244. Roach, Kent. 2009. "Judicial Review of the State's Anti-terrorism Activities: The Post-9/11 Experience and Normative Justifications for Judicial Review." Indian Journal of Constitutional Law 3: 138-67. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1646648.
245. Roach, Kent, and Jonathan Rudin. 2000. "Gladue: The Judicial and Political Reception of a Promising Decision." Canadian Journal of Criminology 42: 355-88.
246. Roberts, Julian V. 1997. "The Role of Criminal Record in the Sentencing Process." In Crime & Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 22, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
247. Roberts, Julian V. 2008a. "Punishing Persistence: Explaining the Enduring Appeal of the Recidivist Sentencing Premium." British Journal of Criminology 48: 468-81.
248. Roberts, Julian V. 2008b. Punishing Persistent Offenders. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
249. Roberts, Julian V. 2010. "First Offender Sentencing Discounts: Exploring the Justifications." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
250. Roberts, Julian V., and Andrew von Hirsch, eds. 2010. Previous Convictions at Sentencing: Theoretical and Applied Perspectives. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
251. Roberts, Julian V., and Michael M. Hough. 2002. Changing Attitudes to Punishment: Public Opinion, Crime and Criminal Justice. Portland, OR: Willan Publishing.
252. Robinson, Paul H. 1987. "Hybrid Principles for the Distribution of Criminal Sanctions." Northwestern University Law Review 82: 19-42.
253. Robinson, Paul H. 2008. Distributive Principles of Criminal Law: Who Should Be Punished? How Much? New York: Oxford University Press.
254. Robinson, Paul H., and Robert Kurzban. 2007. "Concordance and Conflict in Intuitions of Justice." Minnesota Law Review 91: 1829-1907.
255. Ruth, Henry, and Kevin R. Reitz. 2003. The Challenge of Crime: Rethinking Our Response. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
256. Ryberg, Jesper. 2010. "Recidivism, Retributivism, and the Lapse Theory of Previous Convictions." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
257. Sady, Stephen R., and Lynn Deffebach. 2009. "Second Look Resentencing under 18 U.S.C. § 3582(c) as an Example of Prisons Policies That Result in Overincarceration." Federal Sentencing Reporter 21: 167-69.
258. Singer, Richard G. 1979. Just Deserts: Sentencing Based on Equality and Desert. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger Publishing.
259. Slobogin, Christopher. 2009. "Capital Punishment and Dangerousness." In Mental Disorder and Criminal Law: Responsibility, Punishment and Competence, edited by Robert F. Schopp, Richard L. Wiener, Brian H. Bornstein, and Steven L. Willborn. New York: Springer.
260. Slobogin, Christopher. 2011. "Prevention as the Primary Goal of Sentencing: The Modern Case for Indeterminate Dispositions in Criminal Cases." San Diego Law Review 48: 1127-71.
261. Sorensen, Jon, Robert Hope, and Don Stemen. 2003. "Racial Disproportionality in State Prison Admissions: Can Regional Variation Be Explained by Differential Arrest Rates?" Journal of Criminal Justice 31: 73-84.
262. Sullivan, E. Thomas, and Richard S. Frase. 2009. Proportionality Principles in American Law: Controlling Excessive Government Actions. New York: Oxford University Press.
263. Tak, Peter J. 2001. "Sentencing and Punishment in the Netherlands." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
264. Ten, C. L. 1987. Crime, Guilt, and Punishment: A Philosophical Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
265. Thomas, David A. 1979. Principles of Sentencing. 2nd ed. London: Heinemann.
266. Thomas, Yonette F. 2007. "The Social Epidemiology of Drug Abuse." American Journal of Preventative Medicine 32 (6S): S141-S146.
267. Tomlinson, Edward A. 2000. "Translator's Preface." In The French Penal Code, rev. ed., translated by Edward A. Tomlinson. Littleton, CO: Rothman.
268. Tonry, Michael. 1987. "Prediction and Classification: Legal and Ethical Issues." In Prediction and Classification: Criminal Justice Decision Making, edited by Don M. Gottfredson and Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
269. Tonry, Michael. 1991. "Black, White Incarceration Rates." Overcrowded Times 2 (3): 6-7.
270. Tonry, Michael. 1994. "Proportionality, Parsimony, and Interchangeability of Punishments." In Penal Theory and Penal Practice: Tradition and Innovation in Criminal Justice, edited by Antony Duff, Sandra Marshall, Rebecca Emerson Dobash, and Russell P. Dobash. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
271. Tonry, Michael. 1995. Malign Neglect: Race, Crime, and Punishment in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
272. Tonry, Michael. 1996. Sentencing Matters. New York: Oxford University Press.
273. Tonry, Michael. 1999. "Fragmentation of Sentencing and Corrections in America." In Sentencing & Corrections: Issues for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice.
274. Tonry, Michael. 2004. Thinking about Crime: Sense and Sensibility in American Penal Culture. New York: Oxford University Press.
275. Tonry, Michael. 2011. Punishing Race: A Continuing American Dilemma. New York: Oxford University Press.
276. Tonry, Michael, and Richard S. Frase, eds. 2001. Sentencing and Sanctions in Western Countries. New York: Oxford University Press.
277. Tonry, Michael, and Kathleen Hatlestad. 1997. Sentencing Reform in Overcrowded Times: A Comparative Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press.
278. Tonry, Michael, and Matthew Melewski. 2008. "The Malign Effects of Drug and Crime Control Policies on Black Americans." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 37, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
279. Tyler, Tom R. 1990. Why People Obey the Law. New Haven: Yale University Press.
280. Tyler, Tom R. 2006. Why People Obey the Law. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
281. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2007a. Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2005: National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits. http://dawninfo.samhsa.gov/pubs/edpubs/default.asp.
282. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2007b. National Survey on Drug Use and Health. http://www.oas.samhsa.gov/nhsda.htm.
283. U.S. Department of Justice. 1996. National Assessment of Structured Sentencing. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
284. U.S. Department of Justice. 1998. National Survey of State Sentencing Structures. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
285. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2004a. Measuring Recidivism: The Criminal History Computation of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines. http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Publications/Recidivism/200405_Recidivism_Criminal_History.pdf.
286. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2004b. Recidivism and the "First Offender." http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Publications/Recidivism/200405_Recidivism_First_Offender.pdf.
287. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2005. A Comparison of the Federal Sentencing Guidelines Criminal History Category and the U.S. Parole Commission Salient Factor Score. http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Publications/Recidivism/20050104_Recidivism_Salient_Factor_Computation.pdf.
288. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2010. Computation of "Recency" Criminal History Points under USSG §4A1.1(e). http://www.ussc.gov/Research/Research_Publications/2010/20100818_Recency_Report.pdf.
289. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2011. Report to Congress: Mandatory Minimum Penalties in the Federal Criminal Justice System. Washington, DC: United States Sentencing Commission. http://www.ussc.gov/Legislative_and_Public_Affairs/Congressional_Testimony_and_Reports/Mandatory_Minimum_Penalties/20111031_RtC_Mandatory_Minimum.cfm.
290. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2012a. 2010 Sourcebook of Federal Sentencing Statistics. http://www.ussc.gov/Data_and_Statistics/Annual_Reports_and_Sourcebooks/2010/SBTOC10.htm.
291. U.S. Sentencing Commission. 2012b. 2011 Federal Sentencing Guidelines Manual. http://www.ussc.gov/Guidelines/2011_Guidelines/Manual_HTML/index.cfm.
292. Utah Sentencing Commission. 2012. 2011 Adult Sentencing and Release Guidelines. http://www.sentencing.state.ut.us/Guidelines/Adult/2011%20Adult%20Sentencing%20and%20Release%20Guidelines.pdf.
293. Van Ness, Daniel W. 1993. "New Wine and Old Wineskins: Four Challenges of Restorative Justice." Criminal Law Forum 4: 251-76.
294. van Zyl Smit, Dirk, and Andrew Ashworth. 2004. "Disproportionate Sentences as Human Rights Violations." Modern Law Review 67: 541-60.
295. Virginia Criminal Sentencing Commission. 2011. 2011 Annual Report. http://www.vcsc.virginia.gov/2011AnnualReport.pdf.
296. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1976. Doing Justice: The Choice of Punishments. New York: Hill & Wang.
297. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1981. "Utilitarian Sentencing Resuscitated: The American Bar Association's Second Report on Criminal Sentencing." Rutgers Law Review 33: 772-89.
298. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1984. "Equality, 'Anisonomy,' and Justice: A Review of Madness and the Criminal Law." Michigan Law Review 82: 1093-1112.
299. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1985. Past or Future Crimes: Deservedness or Dangerousness in the Sentencing of Criminals. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
300. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1992. "Proportionality in the Philosophy of Punishment." In Crime and Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 16, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
301. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1993. Censure and Sanctions. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
302. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1994. "Sentencing Guidelines and Penal Aims in Minnesota." Criminal Justice Ethics 13: 39-49.
303. von Hirsch, Andrew. 1995. "Proportionality and Parsimony in American Sentencing Guidelines: The Minnesota and Oregon Standards." In Clarkson and Morgan 1995.
304. von Hirsch, Andrew. 2010. "Proportionality and the Progressive Loss of Mitigation: Some Further Reflections." In Roberts and von Hirsch 2010.
305. von Hirsch, Andrew, and Andrew Ashworth. 2005. Proportionate Sentencing: Exploring the Principles. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
306. von Hirsch, Andrew, Anthony E. Bottoms, Elizabeth Burney, and P.-O. Wikström. 1999. Criminal Deterrence and Sentence Severity: An Analysis of Recent Research. Oxford: Hart Publishing.
307. von Hirsch, Andrew, and Niels Jareborg. 1991. "Gauging Criminal Harm: A Living-Standard Analysis." Oxford Journal of Legal Studies 11: 1-38.
308. von Hirsch, Andrew, Martin Wasik, and Judith Greene. 1989. "Punishment in the Community and the Principles of Desert." Rutgers Law Journal 20: 595-618.
309. Wacquant, Loïc. 2002. "Deadly Symbiosis: Rethinking Race and Imprisonment in Twenty-first Century America." Boston Review 27 (April-May): 41-60.
310. Walker, Nigel, 1991. Why Punish? Oxford: Oxford University Press.
311. Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission. 2010. "20 Years in Sentencing: A Look at Washington State Adult Sentencing, Fiscal Years 1989 to 2008." http://www.cfc.wa.gov/PublicationSentencing/Research/TwentyYearsInSentencing_WASentenceTrends.pdf.
312. Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission. 2011. Statistical Summary of Adult Felony Sentencing, Fiscal Year 2010. http://www.cfc.wa.gov/PublicationSentencing/StatisticalSummary/Adult_Stat_Sum_FY2010.pdf.
313. Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission. 2012a. Homepage. http://www.ofm.wa.gov/sgc/meetings/default.asp.
314. Washington Sentencing Guidelines Commission. 2012b. 2011 Washington State Adult Sentencing Guidelines Manual. http://www.cfc.wa.gov/PublicationSentencing/SentencingManual/Adult_Sentencing_Manual_2011.pdf.
315. Wasik, Martin, and Andrew von Hirsch. 1994. "Section 29 Revisited: Previous Convictions in Sentencing." Criminal Law Review (1994): 409-18.
316. Weigend, Thomas. 2001. "Sentencing and Punishment in Germany." In Tonry and Frase 2001.
317. Western, Bruce. 2006. Punishment and Inequality in America. New York: Sage.
318. Western, Bruce. 2011. "Locked Up, Locked Out." Reason, July.
319. Williams, Chyvette T., and Carl A. Latkin. 2007. "Neighborhood Socioeconomic Status, Personal Network Attributes, and Use of Heroin and Cocaine." American Journal of Preventative Medicine 32 (6S): S203-S210.
320. Wilson, William Julius. 1987. The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
321. Wolff, Michael A. 2008. "Evidence-Based Judicial Discretion: Promoting Public Safety through State Sentencing Reform." NYU Law Review 83: 1389-1419.
322. Wooten, Lady (Barbara). 1963. Crime and the Criminal Law. London: Stevens.
323. Wright, Ronald E. 2002. "Counting the Cost of Sentencing in North Carolina, 1980-2000." In Crime & Justice: A Review of Research, vol. 29, edited by Michael Tonry. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
324. Wright, Ronald E. 2005. "Trial Distortion and the End of Innocence in Federal Criminal Justice." University of Pennsylvania Law Review 154: 79-156.
325. Wright, Ronald E., and Rodney L. Engen. 2006. "The Effects of Depth and Distance in a Criminal Code on Charging, Sentencing, and Prosecutor Power." North Carolina Law Review 84: 1935-82.
326. Zeisel, Hans. 1982. The Limits of Law Enforcement. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
327. Zimring, Franklin E. 2005a. "Minimizing Harm from Minority Disproportion in American Juvenile Justice." In Our Children, Their Children: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Differences in American Juvenile Justice, edited by Darnell F. Hawkins and Kimberly Kempf-Leonard. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
328. Zimring, Franklin E. 2005b. "The Unexamined Death Penalty: Capital Punishment and Reform of the Model Penal Code." Columbia Law Review 105: 1396-1415.
329. Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon Hawkins. 1991. The Scale of Imprisonment. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
330. Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon Hawkins. 1995. Incapacitation: Penal Confinement and the Restraint of Crime. New York: Oxford University Press.
331. Zimring, Franklin E., and Gordon Hawkins. 1997. Crime Is Not the Problem: Lethal Violence in America. New York: Oxford University Press.
332. Zimring, Franklin E., Gordon Hawkins, and Sam Kamin. 2001. Punishment and Democracy: Three Strikes and You're Out in California. New York: Oxford University Press.
333. Zitter, Jay M. 2010. "Annotation: Right of Convicted Defendant to Refuse Probation." American Law Reports, 4th ed., 28: 736-46.