Overview of severe clostridium difficile infection

Critical Care Clinics

Volumn 29, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 827-839

  Eaton, Stephen R ^a   Mazuski, John E ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

Clostridium difficile; Clostridium difficile colitis; Nosocomial infection; Pseudomembranous colitis

Indexed keywords

AMPICILLIN; CEPHALOSPORIN DERIVATIVE; CLINDAMYCIN; FIDAXOMICIN; METRONIDAZOLE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; VANCOMYCIN;

ANTIMICROBIAL THERAPY; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE INFECTION; COLON RESECTION; CRITICAL ILLNESS; DISEASE SEVERITY; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INFECTION PREVENTION; NONHUMAN; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK REDUCTION; TREATMENT INDICATION;

CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE COLITIS; NOSOCOMIAL INFECTION; PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS COLITIS;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; CLOSTRIDIUM DIFFICILE; CROSS INFECTION; ENTEROCOLITIS, PSEUDOMEMBRANOUS; HUMANS; INCIDENCE; SEVERITY OF ILLNESS INDEX;

EID: 84884973744     PISSN: 07490704     EISSN: 15578232     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ccc.2013.06.004     Document Type: Review

References (91)

1. Bartlett J.G., Chang T.W., Gurwith M., et al. Antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis due to toxin-producing clostridia. NEngl J Med 1978, 298(10):531-534.
2. McDonald L.C., Killgore G.E., Thompson A., et al. An epidemic, toxin gene-variant strain of Clostridium difficile. NEngl J Med 2005, 353(23):2433-2441.
3. Sunenshine R.H., McDonald L.C. Clostridium difficile-associated disease: new challenges from an established pathogen. Cleve Clin J Med 2006, 73(2):187-197.
4. Bartlett J.G., Perl T.M. The new Clostridium difficile-what does it mean?. NEngl J Med 2005, 353(23):2503-2505.
5. Hubert B., Loo V.G., Bourgault A.M., et al. Aportrait of the geographic dissemination of the Clostridium difficile North American pulsed-field type 1 strain and the epidemiology of C. difficile-associated disease in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 44(2):238-244.
6. Kelly C.P., Pothoulakis C., LaMont J.T. Clostridium difficile colitis. NEngl J Med 1994, 330(4):257-262.
7. Neemann K., Eichele D.D., Smith P.W., et al. Fecal microbiota transplantation for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection in an allogeneic stem cell transplant patient. Transpl Infect Dis 2012, 14(6):E161-E165.
8. Bartlett J.G., Gerding D.N. Clinical recognition and diagnosis of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46(Suppl 1):S12-S18.
9. Gould C.V., McDonald L.C. Bench-to-bedside review: Clostridium difficile colitis. Crit Care 2008, 12(1):203.
10. Drudy D., Calabi E., Kyne L., et al. Human antibody response to surface layer proteins in Clostridium difficile infection. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 2004, 41(3):237-242.
11. Wilkins T.D., Lyerly D.M. Clostridium difficile testing: after 20 years, still challenging. JClin Microbiol 2003, 41(2):531-534.
12. Dubberke E.R., Olsen M.A. Burden of Clostridium difficile on the healthcare system. Clin Infect Dis 2012, 55(Suppl 2):S88-S92.
13. McFarland L.V., Mulligan M.E., Kwok R.Y., et al. Nosocomial acquisition of Clostridium difficile infection. NEngl J Med 1989, 320(4):204-210.
14. Simor A.E., Bradley S.F., Strausbaugh L.J., et al. Clostridium difficile in long-term-care facilities for the elderly. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2002, 23(11):696-703.
15. Reinke C.M., Messick C.R. Update on Clostridium difficile-induced colitis, Part 1. Am J Hosp Pharm 1994, 51(14):1771-1781.
16. Bignardi G.E. Risk factors for Clostridium difficile infection. JHosp Infect 1998, 40(1):1-15.
17. Loo V.G., Poirier L., Miller M.A., et al. Apredominantly clonal multi-institutional outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea with high morbidity and mortality. NEngl J Med 2005, 353(23):2442-2449.
18. Gaynes R., Rimland D., Killum E., et al. Outbreak of Clostridium difficile infection in a long-term care facility: association with gatifloxacin use. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38(5):640-645.
19. Pepin J., Saheb N., Coulombe M.A., et al. Emergence of fluoroquinolones as the predominant risk factor for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a cohort study during an epidemic in Quebec. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 41(9):1254-1260.
20. Aronsson B., Mollby R., Nord C.E. Diagnosis and epidemiology of Clostridium difficile enterocolitis in Sweden. JAntimicrob Chemother 1984, 14(Suppl D):85-95.
21. Yolken R.H., Bishop C.A., Townsend T.R., et al. Infectious gastroenteritis in bone-marrow-transplant recipients. NEngl J Med 1982, 306(17):1010-1012.
22. Mogg G.A., Keighley M.R., Burdon D.W., et al. Antibiotic-associated colitis-a review of 66 cases. Br J Surg 1979, 66(10):738-742.
23. Bartlett J.G., Taylor N.S., Chang T., et al. Clinical and laboratory observations in Clostridium difficile colitis. Am J Clin Nutr 1980, 33(Suppl 11):2521-2526.
24. Tedesco F.J., Barton R.W., Alpers D.H. Clindamycin-associated colitis. A prospective study. Ann Intern Med 1974, 81(4):429-433.
25. Greenstein A.J., Byrn J.C., Zhang L.P., et al. Risk factors for the development of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Surgery 2008, 143(5):623-629.
26. Ananthakrishnan A.N. Clostridium difficile infection: epidemiology, risk factors and management. Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 2010, 8(1):17-26.
27. Butala P., Divino C.M. Surgical aspects of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Am J Surg 2010, 200(1):131-135.
28. Fekety R., Shah A.B. Diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis. JAMA 1993, 269(1):71-75.
29. Gerding D.N., Muto C.A., Owens R.C. Treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46(Suppl 1):S32-S42.
30. Cohen S.H., Gerding D.N., Johnson S., et al. Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2010, 31(5):431-455.
31. Ticehurst J.R., Aird D.Z., Dam L.M., et al. Effective detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile by a two-step algorithm including tests for antigen and cytotoxin. JClin Microbiol 2006, 44(3):1145-1149.
32. Fekety R. Guidelines for the diagnosis and management of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea and colitis. American College of Gastroenterology, Practice Parameters Committee. Am J Gastroenterol 1997, 92(5):739-750.
33. Manabe Y.C., Vinetz J.M., Moore R.D., et al. Clostridium difficile colitis: an efficient clinical approach to diagnosis. Ann Intern Med 1995, 123(11):835-840.
34. National Clostridium difficile Standards Group National Clostridium difficile Standards Group: report to the Department of Health. JHosp Infect 2004, 56(Suppl 1):1-38.
35. Wren M.W., Sivapalan M., Kinson R., et al. Laboratory diagnosis of clostridium difficile infection. An evaluation of tests for faecal toxin, glutamate dehydrogenase, lactoferrin and toxigenic culture in the diagnostic laboratory. Br J Biomed Sci 2009, 66(1):1-5.
36. Mylonakis E., Ryan E.T., Calderwood S.B. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea: a review. Arch Intern Med 2001, 161(4):525-533.
37. Tedesco F.J., Corless J.K., Brownstein R.E. Rectal sparing in antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis: a prospective study. Gastroenterology 1982, 83(6):1259-1260.
38. Tedesco F.J. Antibiotic associated pseudomembranous colitis with negative proctosigmoidoscopy examination. Gastroenterology 1979, 77(2):295-297.
39. Kirkpatrick I.D., Greenberg H.M. Evaluating the CT diagnosis of Clostridium difficile colitis: should CT guide therapy?. AJR Am J Roentgenol 2001, 176(3):635-639.
40. Dellinger R.P., Levy M.M., Rhodes A., et al. Surviving sepsis campaign: international guidelines for management of severe sepsis and septic shock: 2012. Crit Care Med 2013, 41(2):580-637.
41. Shetler K., Nieuwenhuis R., Wren S.M., et al. Decompressive colonoscopy with intracolonic vancomycin administration for the treatment of severe pseudomembranous colitis. Surg Endosc 2001, 15(7):653-659.
42. Teasley D.G., Gerding D.N., Olson M.M., et al. Prospective randomised trial of metronidazole versus vancomycin for Clostridium-difficile-associated diarrhoea and colitis. Lancet 1983, 2(8358):1043-1046.
43. Bolton R.P., Culshaw M.A. Faecal metronidazole concentrations during oral and intravenous therapy for antibiotic associated colitis due to Clostridium difficile. Gut 1986, 27(10):1169-1172.
44. Bartlett J.G. The case for vancomycin as the preferred drug for treatment of Clostridium difficile infection. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46(10):1489-1492.
45. Zar F.A., Bakkanagari S.R., Moorthi K.M., et al. Acomparison of vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, stratified by disease severity. Clin Infect Dis 2007, 45(3):302-307.
46. Louie TJ, Gerson M, Johnson L, etal. Results of a phase III trial comparing tolevamer, vancomycin and metronidazole for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea (CDAD) [abstract K-425a]. In: 47th Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. Washington, DC: ASM Press; 2007.
47. Haaga J.R., Bick R.J., Zollinger R.M. CT-guided percutaneous catheter cecostomy. Gastrointest Radiol 1987, 12(2):166-168.
48. Longo W.E., Mazuski J.E., Virgo K.S., et al. Outcome after colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis. Dis Colon Rectum 2004, 47(10):1620-1626.
49. Olivas A.D., Umanskiy K., Zuckerbraun B., et al. Avoiding colectomy during surgical management of fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2010, 11(3):299-305.
50. Gerber M., Ackermann G. OPT-80, a macrocyclic antimicrobial agent for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infections: a review. Expert Opin Investig Drugs 2008, 17(4):547-553.
51. Mullane K.M., Miller M.A., Weiss K., et al. Efficacy of fidaxomicin versus vancomycin as therapy for Clostridium difficile infection in individuals taking concomitant antibiotics for other concurrent infections. Clin Infect Dis 2011, 53(5):440-447.
52. Dallal R.M., Harbrecht B.G., Boujoukas A.J., et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile: an underappreciated and increasing cause of death and complications. Ann Surg 2002, 235(3):363-372.
53. Lamontagne F., Labbe A.C., Haeck O., et al. Impact of emergency colectomy on survival of patients with fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis during an epidemic caused by a hypervirulent strain. Ann Surg 2007, 245(2):267-272.
54. Pepin J., Vo T.T., Boutros M., et al. Risk factors for mortality following emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile infection. Dis Colon Rectum 2009, 52(3):400-405.
55. Byrn J.C., Maun D.C., Gingold D.S., et al. Predictors of mortality after colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Arch Surg 2008, 143(2):150-154. [discussion: 155].
56. Markelov A., Livert D., Kohli H. Predictors of fatal outcome after colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile Colitis: a 10-year experience. Am Surg 2011, 77(8):977-980.
57. Ali S.O., Welch J.P., Dring R.J. Early surgical intervention for fulminant pseudomembranous colitis. Am Surg 2008, 74(1):20-26.
58. Sailhamer E.A., Carson K., Chang Y., et al. Fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: patterns of care and predictors of mortality. Arch Surg 2009, 144(5):433-439. [discussion: 439-40].
59. Osman K.A., Ahmed M.H., Hamad M.A., et al. Emergency colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis: Striking the right balance. Scan J Gastroenterol 2011, 46(10):1222-1227.
60. Gash K., Brown E., Pullyblank A. Emergency subtotal colectomy for fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis-is a surgical solution considered for all patients?. Ann R Coll Surg Engl 2010, 92(1):56-60.
61. Morris J.B., Zollinger R.M., Stellato T.A. Role of surgery in antibiotic-induced pseudomembranous enterocolitis. Am J Surg 1990, 160(5):535-539.
62. Drapkin M.S., Worthington M.G., Chang T.W., et al. Clostridium difficile colitis mimicking acute peritonitis. Arch Surg 1985, 120(11):1321-1322.
63. Lipsett P.A., Samantaray D.K., Tam M.L., et al. Pseudomembranous colitis: a surgical disease?. Surgery 1994, 116(3):491-496.
64. Synnott K., Mealy K., Merry C., et al. Timing of surgery for fulminating pseudomembranous colitis. Br J Surg 1998, 85(2):229-231.
65. Medich D.S., Lee K.K., Simmons R.L., et al. Laparotomy for fulminant pseudomembranous colitis. Arch Surg 1992, 127(7):847-852. [discussion: 852-3].
66. Bradbury A.W., Barrett S. Surgical aspects of Clostridium difficile colitis. Br J Surg 1997, 84(2):150-159.
67. Grundfest-Broniatowski S., Quader M., Alexander F., et al. Clostridium difficile colitis in the critically ill. Dis Colon Rectum 1996, 39(6):619-623.
68. Neal M.D., Alverdy J.C., Hall D.E., et al. Diverting loop ileostomy and colonic lavage: An alternative to total abdominal colectomy for the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile associated disease. Ann Surg 2011, 254(3):423-429.
69. Carchman E.H., Peitzman A.B., Simmons R.L., et al. The role of acute care surgery in the treatment of severe, complicated Clostridium difficile-associated disease. J Trauma Acute Care Surg 2012, 73(4):789-800.
70. McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., Rubin M., et al. Recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: epidemiology and clinical characteristics. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1999, 20(1):43-50.
71. Barbut F., Richard A., Hamadi K., et al. Epidemiology of recurrences or reinfections of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea. JClin Microbiol 2000, 38(6):2386-2388.
72. Pepin J., Alary M.E., Valiquette L., et al. Increasing risk of relapse after treatment of Clostridium difficile colitis in Quebec, Canada. Clin Infect Dis 2005, 40(11):1591-1597.
73. McFarland L.V., Surawicz C.M., Greenberg R.N., et al. Arandomized placebo-controlled trial of Saccharomyces boulardii in combination with standard antibiotics for Clostridium difficile disease. JAMA 1994, 271(24):1913-1918.
74. Surawicz C.M., McFarland L.V., Greenberg R.N., et al. The search for a better treatment for recurrent Clostridium difficile disease: use of high-dose vancomycin combined with Saccharomyces boulardii. Clin Infect Dis 2000, 31(4):1012-1017.
75. McFarland L.V. Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease. Am J Gastroenterol 2006, 101(4):812-822.
76. Brandt L.J. American Journal of Gastroenterology lecture: intestinal microbiota and the role of fecal microbiota transplant (FMT) in treatment of C. difficile infection. Am J Gastroenterol 2013, 108(2):177-185.
77. Postigo R., Kim J.H. Colonoscopic versus nasogastric fecal transplantation for the treatment of Clostridium difficile infection: a review and pooled analysis. Infection 2012, 40(6):643-648.
78. van Nood E., Vrieze A., Nieuwdorp M., et al. Duodenal infusion of donor feces for recurrent Clostridium difficile. NEngl J Med 2013, 368(5):407-415.
79. Leav B.A., Blair B., Leney M., et al. Serum anti-toxin B antibody correlates with protection from recurrent Clostridium difficile infection (CDI). Vaccine 2010, 28(4):965-969.
80. Samore M.H., Venkataraman L., DeGirolami P.C., et al. Clinical and molecular epidemiology of sporadic and clustered cases of nosocomial Clostridium difficile diarrhea. Am J Med 1996, 100(1):32-40.
81. Garner J.S. Guideline for isolation precautions in hospitals. The Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 1996, 17(1):53-80.
82. Sehulster L., Chinn R.Y. Guidelines for environmental infection control in health-care facilities. Recommendations of CDC and the Healthcare Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee (HICPAC). MMWR Recomm Rep 2003, 52(RR-10):1-42.
83. Raymond D.P., Kuehnert M.J., Sawyer R.G. Preventing antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infections in surgical patients. Surg Infect (Larchmt) 2002, 3(4):375-385.
84. Paterson D.L. "Collateral damage" from cephalosporin or quinolone antibiotic therapy. Clin Infect Dis 2004, 38(Suppl 4):S341-S345.
85. Rice L.B. The Maxwell Finland lecture: for the duration-rational antibiotic administration in an era of antimicrobial resistance and Clostridium difficile. Clin Infect Dis 2008, 46(4):491-496.
86. Klipfel A.A., Schein M., Fahoum B., et al. Acute abdomen and Clostridium difficile colitis: still a lethal combination. Dig Surg 2000, 17(2):160-163.
87. Koss K., Clark M.A., Sanders D.S., et al. The outcome of surgery in fulminant Clostridium difficile colitis. Colorectal Dis 2006, 8(2):149-154.
88. Chan S., Kelly M., Helme S., et al. Outcomes following colectomy for Clostridium difficile colitis. Int J Surg 2009, 7(1):78-81.
89. Khanna S., Pardi D.S., Aronson S.L., et al. The epidemiology of community-acquired Clostridium difficile infection: a population-based study. Am J Gastroenterol 2013, 107(1):89-95.
90. Muto C.A., Pokrywka M., Shutt K., et al. Alarge outbreak of Clostridium difficile-associated disease with an unexpected proportion of deaths and colectomies at a teaching hospital following increased fluoroquinolone use. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2005, 26(3):273-280.
91. Pepin J., Valiquette L., Alary M.E., et al. Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in a region of Quebec from 1991 to 2003: a changing pattern of disease severity. CMAJ 2004, 171(5):466-472.