Why does choice enhance treatment effectiveness? Using placebo treatments to demonstrate the role of personal control

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

Volumn 105, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 549-566

  Geers, Andrew L ^a   Rose, Jason P ^a   Fowler, Stephanie L ^a   Rasinski, Heather M ^a   Brown, Jill A ^a   Helfer, Suzanne G ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF TOLEDO   (United States)

^b ADRIAN COLLEGE   (United States)

Author keywords

Choice; Expectations; Personal control; Placebo effects; Shared decision making

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIA; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; ARTICLE; AUDITORY STIMULATION; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; DECISION MAKING; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; METHODOLOGY; PAIN; PATIENT PARTICIPATION; PHYSIOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; STUDENT; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

ACOUSTIC STIMULATION; ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE; CHOICE BEHAVIOR; FEMALE; HUMANS; MALE; PAIN; PAIN MANAGEMENT; PATIENT PARTICIPATION; STUDENTS; TREATMENT OUTCOME;

EID: 84884234780     PISSN: 00223514     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1037/a0034005     Document Type: Article

References (127)

1. AbuSabha, R., & Achterberg, C. (1997). Review of self-efficacy and locus of control for nutrition- and health-related behavior. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, 1122-1132. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(97)00273-3
2. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
3. Ariely, D., & Norton, M. I. (2007). How actions create-not just reveal- preferences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12, 13-16. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.10.008
4. Aslaksen, P. M., Bystad, M., Vambheim, S. M., & Flaten, M. A. (2011). Gender differences in placebo analgesia: Event-related potentials and emotional modulation. Psychosomatic Medicine, 73, 193-199. doi: 10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182080d73
5. Atlas, L. Y., Wager, T. D., Dahl, K. P., & Smith, E. E. (2009). Placebo effects. In G. G. Berntson & J. T. Cacioppo (Eds.), Handbook of neuroscience for the behavioral sciences (pp. 1236-1259). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. doi:10.1002/9780470478509.neubb002063
6. Aujoulat, I., Luminet, O., & Deccache, A. (2007). The perspective of patients on their experience of powerlessness. Qualitative Health Research, 17, 772-785. doi:10.1177/1049732307302665
7. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
8. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York, NY: Freedman.
9. Barry, M. J., & Edgman-Levitan, S. (2012). Shared decision making-The pinnacle of patient-centered care. New England Journal of Medicine, 366, 780-781. doi:10.1056/NEJMp1109283
10. Baumeister, R. F., Sparks, E. A., Stillman, T. F., & Vohs, K. D. (2008). Free will in consumer behavior: Self-control, ego depletion, and choice. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 18, 4-13. doi:10.1016/j.jcps.2007.10.002
11. Beattie, J., Baron, J., Hershey, J. C., & Spranca, M. (1994). Determinants of decision attitude. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 7, 129-144. doi:10.1002/bdm.3960070206
12. Benedetti, F. (2009). Placebo effects: Understanding the mechanisms in health and disease. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
13. Botti, S., & Iyengar, S. S. (2004). The psychological pleasure and pain of choosing: When people prefer choosing at the cost of subsequent outcome satisfaction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87, 312-326. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.312
14. Botti, S., Orfali, K., & Iyengar, S. S. (2009). Tragic choices: Autonomy and emotional responses to medical decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 36, 337-352. doi:10.1086/598969
15. Branthwaite, A., & Cooper, P. (1981). Analgesic effects of branding in treatment of headaches. British Medical Journal, 282, 1576-1578. doi: 10.1136/bmj.282.6276.1576
16. Brehm, J. W. (1956). Postdecision changes in the desirability of alternatives. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 52, 384-389. doi: 10.1037/h0041006
17. Brehm, S. S., & Smith, T. W. (1986). Social psychological approaches to psychotherapy and behavior change. In S. L. Garfield & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (3rd ed., pp. 69-115). New York, NY: Wiley.
18. Burger, J. M. (1989). Negative reactions to increases in perceived personal control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 246-256. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.246
19. Burger, J. M. (1991). The effects of desire for control in situations with chance-determined outcomes: Gambling behavior in lotto and bingo players. Journal of Research in Personality, 25, 196-204. doi:10.1016/0092-6566(91)90015-I
20. Burger, J. M., & Cooper, H. M. (1979). The desirability of control. Motivation and Emotion, 3, 381-393. doi:10.1007/BF00994052
21. Bushman, B. J., & Baumeister, R. F. (1998). Threatened egotism, narcissism, self-esteem, and direct and displaced aggression: Does self-love or self-hate lead to violence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 219-229. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.219
22. Calne, R., Calne, J., & Calne, S. (2009). Patient choice or patient abandoned. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 15, 996-999. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2753.2009.01304.x
23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2010). Prescription drug use continues to increase: U.S. prescription drug data for 2007-2008 (NCHS Data Brief No. 42). Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs
24. Chilvers, C., Dewey, M., Fielding, K., Gretton, V., Miller, P., Palmer, B.,... Harrison, G. (2001). Antidepressant drugs and generic counseling for treatment of major depression in primary care: Randomized trial with patient preference arms. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 322, 772-775. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7289.772
25. Choi, J., & Fishbach, A. (2011). Choice as an end versus a means. Journal of Marketing Research, 48, 544-554. doi:10.1509/jmkr.48.3.544
26. Closs, S. J., & Briggs, M. (2002). Patients' verbal descriptions of pain and discomfort following orthopaedic surgery. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 39, 563-572. doi:10.1016/S0020-7489(01)00067-0
27. Colloca, L., & Benedetti, F. (2005). Placebos and painkillers: Is mind as real as matter. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 6, 545-552. doi:10.1038/nrn1705
28. Cordova, D., & Lepper, M. R. (1996). Intrinsic motivation and the process of learning: Beneficial effects of contextualization, personalization, and choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 715-730. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.88.4.715
29. deCharms, R. (1968). Personal causation. New York, NY: Academic Press.
30. Deci, E., & Ryan, R. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press.
31. Department of Health. (2005). Creating a patient-led NHS: Delivering the NHS improvement plan. London, England: NHS Executive.
32. Di Blasi, Z., Harkness, E., Ernst, E., Georgiou, A., & Kleijnen, J. (2001). Influence of context effects on health outcomes: A systematic review. Lancet, 357, 757-762. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04169-6
33. Dowling, J. (1982). Autonomic indices and reactive pain reports on the McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain, 14, 387-392. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(82)90146-4
34. Eccles, J. S. (1987). Gender roles and women's achievement-related decisions. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 135-172. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1987.tb00781.x
35. Eddy, D. M. (1990). Designing a practice policy: Standards, guidelines, and options. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 263, 3077-3084. doi:10.1001/jama.1990.03440220105041
36. Enck, P., Bingel, U., Schedlowski, M., & Rief, W. (2013). The placebo response in medicine: Minimize, maximize, or personalize. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery, 12, 191-204. doi:10.1038/nrd3923
37. Ewing, J. A. (1977). Matching therapy and patients: The cafeteria plan. British Journal of Addition to Alcohol and Other Drugs, 72, 13-18. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.1977.tb03959.x
38. Fallowfield, L. J., Hall, A., Maguire, G. P., & Baum, M. (1990). Psychological outcomes of different treatment policies in women with early breast cancer outside a clinical trial. British Medical Journal, 301, 575-580. doi:10.1136/bmj.301.6752.575
39. Fillingim, R. B., King, C. D., Ribeiro-Dasilva, M. C., Rahim-William, B., & Riley, J. L. (2009). Sex, gender, and pain: A review of recent clinical and experimental findings. Journal of Pain, 10, 447-485. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2008.12.001
40. Finney, J. W., & Moos, R. H. (1986). Matching patients with treatments: Conceptual and methodological issues. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 47, 122-134.
41. Finniss, D. G., Kaptchuk, T. J., Miller, F., & Benedetti, F. (2010). Biological, clinical, and ethical advances of placebo effects. Lancet, 375, 686-695. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61706-2
42. Folkman, S. (1984). Personal control and stress and coping processes: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 839-852. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.46.4.839
43. Fritsche, I., Jonas, E., & Fankhanel, T. (2008). The role of control motivation in mortality salience effects on ingroup support and defense. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 524-541. doi: 10.1037/a0012666
44. Geers, A. L., & Rose, J. P. (2011). Treatment choice and placebo expectation effects. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10, 734-750. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00385.x
45. Geers, A. L., Wellman, J. A., Fowler, S. L., Helfer, S. G., & France, C. R. (2010). Dispositional optimism predicts placebo analgesia. Journal of Pain, 11, 1165-1171. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2010.02.014
46. Gordon, R. M. (1976). Effects of volunteering and responsibility on the perceived value and effectiveness of a clinical treatment. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 44, 799-801. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.44.5.799
47. Hack, T. F., Degner, L. F., Watson, P., & Sinha, L. (2006). Do patients benefit from participating in medical decision making. Longitudinal follow-up of women with breast cancer. Psycho-Oncology, 15, 9-19. doi:10.1002/pon.907
48. Hahn, R. A. (1985). A sociocultural model of illness and healing. In L. White, B. Tursky, & G. E. Schwartz (Eds.), Placebo: Theory, research, and mechanisms (pp. 167-195). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
49. Haig, T. B., Scott, D. A., & Stevens, G. B. (1989). Measurement of the discomfort component of illness. Medical Care, 27, 280-287. doi: 10.1097/00005650-198903000-00006
50. Handelzalts, J. E., & Keinan, G. (2010). The effect of choice between test anxiety options on treatment outcomes. Psychotherapy Research, 20, 100-112. doi:10.1080/10503300903121106
51. Harrington, A. (1997). The placebo effect: An interdisciplinary exploration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
52. Hart, W., Albarracín, D., Eagly, A. H., Brechan, I., Lindberg, M. J., & Merrill, L. (2009). Feeling validated versus being correct: A metaanalysis of selective exposure to information. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 555-588. doi:10.1037/a0015701
53. Harter, S. (1978). Effectance motivation reconsidered: Toward a developmental model. Human Development, 21, 34-64. doi:10.1159/000271574
54. Hyland, M. (2011). The origins of health and disease. Cambridge, England: Cambridge Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511976216
55. Inesi, M. E., Botti, S., Dubois, D., Rucker, D. D., & Galinsky, A. D. (2011). Power and choice: Their dynamic interplay in quenching the thirst for personal control. Psychological Science, 22, 1042-1048. doi: 10.1177/0956797611413936
56. Institute of Medicine of the National Academies. (2011). Relieving pain in America: A blueprint for transforming prevention, care, education, and research. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
57. Iyengar, S. S., & Lepper, M. R. (2000). When choice is demotivating: Can one desire too much of a good thing. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 995-1006. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.6.995
58. Jonas, E., Schulz-Hardt, S., Fischer, P., & Frey, D. (2006). Biased information seeking after decisions: Cognitive and motivational biases. In D. Frey, H. Mandl, & L. von Rosenstiel (Eds.), Knowledge and action (pp. 23-51). Ashland, OH: Hogrefe & Huber.
59. Kahneman, D. (2003). A perspective on judgment and choice: Mapping bounded rationality. American Psychologist, 58, 697-720. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.58.9.697
60. Kanfer, F. H., & Grimm, L. G. (1978). Freedom of choice and behavioral change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 46, 873-878. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.46.5.873
61. Kirsch, I. (Ed.). (1999). How expectancies shape experience. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/10332-000
62. Kirsch, I. (2010). The emperor's new drugs: Exploding the antidepressant myth. New York, NY: Basic Books.
63. Langer, E. J., & Rodin, J. (1976). The effects of choice and enhanced personal responsibility for the aged: A field experiment in an institutional setting. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 191-198. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.34.2.191
64. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Psychological stress and the coping process. New York, NY: Springer.
65. Leavitt, F., Garron, D. C., Whisler, W. W., & Sheinkop, M. B. (1978). Affective and sensory dimensions of back pain. Pain, 4, 273-281. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(77)90139-7
66. Leotti, L. A., & Delgado, M. R. (2011). The inherent reward of choice. Psychological Science, 22, 1310-1318. doi:10.1177/0956797611417005
67. Leotti, L. A., Iyengar, S. S., & Ochsner, K. N. (2010). Born to choose: The origin and value of the need for control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 457-463. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2010.08.001
68. Liem, G. R. (1975). Performance and satisfaction as affected by personal control over salient decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 232-240. doi:10.1037/h0076336
69. Luce, M. F. (1998). Choosing to avoid: Coping with negatively emotionladen consumer decisions. Journal of Consumer Research, 24, 409-433. doi:10.1086/209518
70. Lundh, L. G. (1987). Placebo, belief, and health: A cognitive- emotional model. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 28, 128-143. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.1987.tb00747.x
71. Maier, S. F., Amat, J., Baratta, M. V., & Watkins, L. R. (2006). Behavioral control, the medial prefrontal cortex, and resilience. Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience, 8, 397-406.
72. Maier, S. F., Laudenslager, M. L., & Ryan, S. M. (1985). Stressor controllability, immune function, and endogenous opiates. In F. R. Brush & J. B. Overmier (Eds.), Affect, conditioning, and cognition: Essays on the determinants of behavior (pp. 183-201). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
73. Melzack, R. (1987). The short form of the McGill Pain Questionnaire. Pain, 30, 191-197. doi:10.1016/0304-3959(87)91074-8
74. Mendonca, P. J., & Brehm, S. S. (1983). Effects of choice on behavioral treatment of overweight children. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 1, 343-358. doi:10.1521/jscp.1983.1.4.343
75. Mills, R. T., & Krantz, D. S. (1979). Information, choice, and reactions to stress: A field experiment in a blood bank with laboratory analogue. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 608-620. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.37.4.608
76. Mintzes, B. (2012). Advertising of prescription-only medicines to the public: Does evidence of benefits counterbalance harm. Annual Review of Public Health, 33, 259-277. doi:10.1146/annurev-publhealth- 031811-124540
77. Moerman, D. (2002). Meaning, medicine, and the "placebo effect." Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511810855
78. Montgomery, G. H., & Kirsch, I. (1996). Mechanisms of placebo pain reduction: An empirical investigation. Psychological Science, 7, 174-176. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00352.x
79. Montgomery, G. H., & Kirsch, I. (1997). Classical conditioning and the placebo effect. Pain, 72, 107-113. doi:10.1016/S0304-3959(97) 00016-X
80. Morris, J., & Royle, G. T. (1988). Offering patients a choice of surgery for early breast cancer: A reduction in anxiety and depression in patients and their husbands. Social Science & Medicine, 26, 583-585. doi:10.1016/0277-9536(88)90021-4
81. Morton, D. L., Watson, A., El-Deredy, W., & Jones, A. K. (2009). Reproducibility of placebo analgesia: Effects of dispositional optimism. Pain, 146, 194-198. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2009.07.026
82. Moyer, A., & Salovey, P. (1998). Patient participation in treatment decision making and the psychological consequences of breast cancer surgery. Women's Health, 4, 103-116.
83. Nicholls, J. G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328-346. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.328
84. Park, C. L., & Gaffey, A. E. (2007). Relationships between psychosocial factors and health behavior change in cancer survivors: An integrative review. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 34, 115-134. doi:10.1007/BF02872667
85. Patall, E. A. (2012). The motivational complexity of choosing: A review of theory and research. In R. Ryan (Ed.), Oxford handbook of human motivation (pp. 249-279). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195399820.013.0015
86. Patall, E. A., Cooper, H., & Robinson, J. C. (2008). The effects of choice on intrinsic motivation and related outcomes: A meta-analysis of research findings. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 270-300. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.134.2.270
87. Paterson, R. J., & Neufeld, R. W. J. (1995). What are my options. Influences of choice availability on stress and the perception of control. Journal of Research in Personality, 29, 145-167. doi:10.1006/jrpe.1995.1009
88. Peterson, C., Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1995). Learned helplessness: A theory for the age of personal control. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
89. Petrovic, P., Dietrich, T., Fransson, P., Andersson, J., & Carlsson, K. (2005). Placebo in emotional processing-induced expectations of anxiety relief activate a generalized modulatory network. Neuron, 46, 957-969. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.05.023
90. Pittman, T. S. (1998). Motivation. In D. Gilbert, S. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 549-590). Boston, MA: McGraw-Hill.
91. Pittman, T. S., & Pittman, N. L. (1980). Deprivation of control and the attribution process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39, 377-389. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.377
92. Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879-891. doi:10.3758/BRM.40.3.879
93. Price, D. D., & Barrell, J. J. (1999). Expectation and desire in pain and pain reduction. In I. Kirsch (Ed.), How expectancies shape experience (pp. 145-171). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi: 10.1037/10332-006
94. Price, D. D., Finniss, D. G., & Benedetti, F. (2008). A comprehensive review of the placebo effect: Recent advances and current thought. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 565-590. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.59.113006.095941
95. Quill, T. E., & Brody, H. (1996). Physician recommendations and patient autonomy: Finding a balance between physician power and patient choice. Annals of Internal Medicine, 125, 763-769. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-125-9-199611010-00010
96. Reed, A. E., Mikels, J. A., & Simon, K. I. (2008). Older adults prefer less choice than young adults. Psychology and Aging, 23, 671-675. doi: 10.1037/a0012772
97. Reeve, J., Nix, G., & Hamm, D. (2003). Testing models of the experience of self-determination in intrinsic motivation and the conundrum of choice. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95, 375-392. doi:10.1037/0022-0663.95.2.375
98. Renjilian, D. A., Perri, M. G., Nezu, A. M., McKelvev, W. F., Shermer, R. L., & Anton, S. D. (2001). Individual versus group therapy for obesity: Effects of matching participants to their treatment preferences. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 717-721. doi: 10.1037/0022-006X.69.4.717
99. Reyes-Ortiz, C. A. (1996). Patient-centered medicine. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 275, 1156-1166. doi:10.1001/jama.1996.03530390022017
100. Rokke, P. D., & Al'Absi, M. (1992). Matching pain coping strategies to the individual: A prospective validation of the Cognitive Coping Strategy Inventory. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 611-625. doi:10.1007/BF00844859
101. Rokke, P. D., & Lall, R. (1992). The role of choice in enhancing tolerance to acute pain. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 53-65. doi:10.1007/BF01172956
102. Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: A two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5-37. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.5
103. Rotter, J. B. (1954). Social learning and clinical psychology. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall. doi:10.1037/10788-000
104. Sartory, G., Heinen, R., Pundt, I., & Johren, P. (2006). Predictors of behavioral avoidance in dental phobia: The role of gender, dysfunctional cognitions and the need for control. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 19, 279-291. doi:10.1080/10615800600841240
105. Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and selfesteem): A reevaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
106. Schwartz, B. (2000). Self-determination: The tyranny of freedom. American Psychologist, 55, 79-88. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.79
107. Seligman, M. E. P. (1975). Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco, CA: Freeman.
108. Shapiro, D. H., Schwartz, C. E., & Astin, J. A. (1996). Controlling ourselves, controlling our world: Psychology's role in understanding positive and negative consequences of seeking and gaining control. American Psychologist, 51, 1213-1230. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.51.12.1213
109. Sharot, T., De Martino, B., & Dolan, R. J. (2009). How choice reveals and shapes expected hedonic reaction. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 3760-3765. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4972-08.2009
110. Sharot, T., Shiner, T., & Dolan, R. J. (2010). Experience and choice shape expected aversive outcomes. Journal of Neuroscience, 30, 9209-9215. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4770-09.2010
111. Sherman, R., & Hickner, J. (2008). Academic physicians use placebos in clinical practice and belief in the mind-body connection. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23, 7-10. doi:10.1007/s11606-007-0332-z
112. Sprott, D. E., Brumbaugh, A. M., & Miyazaki, A. D. (2001). Motivation and ability as predictors of play behavior in state-sponsored lotteries: An empirical assessment of psychological control. Psychology & Marketing, 18, 973-983. doi:10.1002/mar.1038
113. Stewart, M., Brown, J. B., Weston, W. W., McWhinney, I. R., McWilliam, C. L., & Freeman, T. R. (2003). Patient-centered medicine: Transforming the clinical method (2nd ed.). Abingdon, England: Radcliffe Medical Press.
114. Street, R. L., & Voigt, B. (1997). Patient participation in deciding breast cancer treatment and subsequent quality of life. Medical Decision Making, 17, 298-306. doi:10.1177/0272989X9701700306
115. Swift, J. K., & Callahan, J. L. (2009). The impact of client treatment preferences on outcome: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 65, 368-381. doi:10.1002/jclp.20553
116. Tafarodi, R. W., Milne, A. B., & Smith, A. J. (1999). The confidence of choice: Evidence for an augmentation effect on self-perceived performance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25, 1405-1416. doi:10.1177/0146167299259006
117. Taylor, S. E. (1979). Hospital patient behavior: Reactance, helplessness, or control. Journal of Social Issues, 35, 156-184. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1979.tb00793.x
118. Thompson, S. C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it. A complex answer to a simple question. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89-101. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.90.1.89
119. Thompson, S. C. (1993). Naturally occurring perceptions of control: A model of bounded flexibility. In G. Weary, F. Gleicher, & K. L. Marsh (Eds.), Control motivation and social cognition (pp. 74-93). New York, NY: Springer. doi:10.1007/978-1-4613-8309-3_3
120. Thompson, S. C., & Schlehofer, M. M. (2008). The many sides of control motivation: Motives for high, low, and illusory control. In J. Y. Shah & W. L. Gardner (Eds.), Handbook of motivation science (pp. 41-56). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
121. Tilburt, J. C., Emanuel, E. J., Kaptchuk, T. J., Curlin, F. A., & Miller, F. G. (2008). Prescribing "placebo treatments": Results of national survey of U.S. internists and rheumatologists. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 337: a1938. doi:10.1136/bmj.a1938
122. Vogel, B. A., Leonhart, R., & Helmes, A. W. (2009). Communication matters: The impact of communication and participation in decision making on breast cancer patients' depression and quality of life. Patient Education and Counseling, 77, 391-397. doi:10.1016/j.pec.2009.09.005
123. Waber, R. L., Shiv, B., Carmon, Z., & Ariely, D. (2008). Commercial features of placebo and therapeutic efficacy. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, 299, 1016-1017. doi:10.1001/jama.299.9.1016
124. Wager, T. D. (2005). Expectations and anxiety as mediators of placebo effects in pain. Pain, 115, 225-226. doi:10.1016/j.pain.2005.03.018
125. Wallston, K. A., Smith, R. A., King, J. E., Smith, M. S., Rye, P., & Burish, T. G. (1991). Desire for control and choice of antiemetic treatment for cancer chemotherapy. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 13, 12-29. doi:10.1177/019394599101300102
126. Wilkes, M. S., Doblin, B. H., & Shapiro, M. F. (1992). Pharmaceutical advertisements in leading medical journals: Experts' assessments. Annals of Internal Medicine, 116, 912-919. doi:10.7326/0003-4819-116-11-912
127. Worthington, E. L. (1978). The effects of imagery content, choice of imagery content, and self-verbalization on the self-control of pain. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 2, 225-240. doi:10.1007/BF01185785