Long-term macrolide treatment for chronic respiratory disease

European Respiratory Journal

Volumn 42, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 239-251

  Spagnolo, Paolo ^a   Fabbri, Leonardo M ^a   Bush, Andrew ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MODENA AND REGGIO EMILIA   (Italy)

^b ROYAL BROMPTON AND HAREFIELD NHS FOUNDATION TRUST   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AZITHROMYCIN; CLARITHROMYCIN; ERYTHROMYCIN; FLUTICASONE; MACROLIDE; PLACEBO;

ACUTE LUNG INJURY; ASTHMA; BRONCHIECTASIS; BRONCHIOLITIS; BRONCHIOLITIS OBLITERAN SYNDROME; CHRONIC GRAFT REJECTION; CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE LUNG DISEASE; CHRONIC RESPIRATORY TRACT DISEASE; CHRONIC RHINOSINUSITIS; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; DIFFUSE PANBRONCHIOLITIS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DOSE RESPONSE; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG MEGADOSE; DRUG SAFETY; DRUG TOLERABILITY; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HEARING IMPAIRMENT; HEART ARRHYTHMIA; HUMAN; LONG TERM CARE; LOW DRUG DOSE; LUNG DISEASE; LUNG FIBROSIS; ORGANIZING PNEUMONIA; OTOTOXICITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PATIENT ASSESSMENT; PATIENT MONITORING; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; RISK REDUCTION; VIRAL RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTION;

ANTI-BACTERIAL AGENTS; ASTHMA; BRONCHIECTASIS; BRONCHIOLITIS; BRONCHIOLITIS OBLITERANS; CHRONIC DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIALS AS TOPIC; CYSTIC FIBROSIS; HAEMOPHILUS INFECTIONS; HUMANS; MACROLIDES; PNEUMONIA; PULMONARY DISEASE, CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE; RESPIRATORY TRACT INFECTIONS; SINUSITIS;

EID: 84879524095     PISSN: 09031936     EISSN: 13993003     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1183/09031936.00136712     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Mazzei T, Mini E, Novelli A, et al. Chemistry and mode of action of macrolides. J Antimicrob Chemother 1993; 31: 1-9. (Pubitemid 23110695)
2. Bearden DT, Rodvold KA. Penetration of macrolides into pulmonary sites of infection. Infect Med 1999; 16: 480-484.
3. Seppälä H, Klaukka T, Vuopio-Varkila J, et al. The effect of changes in the consumption of macrolide antibiotics on erythromycin resistance in Group A streptococci in Finland. N Engl J Med 1997; 337: 441-446. (Pubitemid 27333044)
4. Kudoh S, Azuma A, Yamamoto M, et al. Improvement of survival in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis treated with low-dose erythromycin. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 1829-1832.
5. Rubin BK. Immunomodulatory properties of macrolides: overview and historical perspective. Am J Med 2004; 117: Suppl. 9A, 2-4.
6. Tamaoki J, Takeyama K, Tagaya E, et al. Effect of clarithromycin on sputum production and its rheological properties in chronic respiratory tract infections. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1995; 39: 1688-1690.
7. Takizawa H, Desaki M, Ohtoshi T, et al. Erythromycin modulates IL-8 expression in normal and inflamed human bronchial epithelial cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1997; 156: 266-271. (Pubitemid 27293200)
8. Desaki M, Okazaki H, Sunazuka T, et al. Molecular mechanisms of anti-inflammatory action of erythromycin in human bronchial epithelial cells: possible role in the signaling pathway that regulates nuclear factor-kB activation. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2004; 48: 1581-1585. (Pubitemid 38544362)
9. Kusano S, Kadota J, Kohno S, et al. Effect of roxithromycin on peripheral neutrophil adhesion molecules in patients with chronic lower respiratory tract disease. Respiration 1995; 62: 217-222.
10. Crosbie PA, Woodhead MA. Long-term macrolide therapy in chronic inflammatory airway disease. Eur Respir J 2009; 33: 171-181.
11. Azuma A, Kudoh S. Diffuse panbronchiolitis in East Asia. Respirology 2006; 11: 249-261.
12. Poletti V, Casoni G, Chilosi M, et al. Diffuse panbronchiolitis. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 862-871. (Pubitemid 46332008)
13. Ichikawa Y, Koga H, Tanaka M, et al. Neutrophilia in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of diffuse panbronchiolitis. Chest 1990; 98: 917-923. (Pubitemid 20355502)
14. Sakito O, Kadota J, Kohno S. Interleukin 1b, tumour necrosis factor a, and interleukin 8 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis: a potential mechanism of macrolide therapy. Respiration 1996; 63: 42-48. (Pubitemid 26039586)
15. Fujii T, Kadota J, Kawakami K, et al. Long term effect of erythromycin therapy in patients with chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. Thorax 1995; 50: 1246-1252.
16. Nagai H, Shishido H, Yoneda R, et al. Long-term low-dose administration of erythromycin to patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis. Respiration 1991; 58: 145-149.
17. Nakamura H, Fujishima S, Inoue T, et al. Clinical and immunoregulatory effects of roxithromycin therapy for chronic respiratory tract infection. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 1371-1379. (Pubitemid 29357155)
18. Kadota J, Mukae H, Ishii H, et al. Long-term efficacy and safety of clarithromycin treatment in patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis. Respir Med 2003; 97: 844-850. (Pubitemid 36763898)
19. Li H, Zhou Y, Fan F, et al. Effect of azithromycin on patients with diffuse panbronchiolitis: retrospective study of cases. Intern Med 2011; 50: 1663-1669.
20. Koyama H, Geddes DM. Erythromycin and diffuse panbronchiolitis. Thorax 1997; 52: 915-918. (Pubitemid 27473937)
21. Akira M, Higashihara T, Sakatani M, et al. Diffuse panbronchiolitis: follow-up CT examination. Radiology 1993; 189: 559-562. (Pubitemid 23321444)
22. Yang M, Dong BR, Lu J, et al. Macrolides for diffuse panbronchiolitis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2010; 12: CD007716.
23. Davies JC, Alton EW, Bush A. Cystic fibrosis. BMJ 2007; 335: 1255-1259.
24. Gibson RL, Burns JL, Ramsey BW. Pathophysiology and management of pulmonary infections in cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 168: 918-951. (Pubitemid 37267172)
25. Cohen-Cymberknoh M, Shoseyov D, Kerem E. Managing cystic fibrosis: strategies that increase life expectancy and improve quality of life. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 1463-1471.
26. Razvi S, Quittell L, Sewall A, et al. Respiratory microbiology of patients with cystic fibrosis in the United States, 1995 to 2005. Chest 2009; 136: 1554-1560.
27. Waters V, Yau Y, Prasad S, et al. Stenotrophomonas maltophilia in cystic fibrosis: serologic response and effect on lung disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 635-640.
28. Zlosnik JEA, Costa PS, Brant R, et al. Mucoid and nonmucoid Burkolderia cepacia complex bacteria in cystic fibrosis infections. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2011; 183: 67-72.
29. Foweraker J. Recent advances in the microbiology of respiratory tract infection in cystic fibrosis. Br Med Bull 2009; 89: 93-110.
30. Khan TZ, Wagener JS, Bost T, et al. Early pulmonary inflammation in infants with cystic fibrosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1995; 151: 1075-1082.
31. Wolter J, Seeney S, Bell S, et al. Effect of long term treatment with azithromycin on disease parameters in cystic fibrosis: a randomized trial. Thorax 2002; 57: 212-216. (Pubitemid 34214405)
32. Equi A, Balfour-Lynn IM, Bush A, et al. Long term azithromycin in children with cystic fibrosis: a randomized, placebo-controlled crossover trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 978-984. (Pubitemid 35284109)
33. Saiman L, Marshall BC, Mayer-Hamblett N, et al. Azithromycin in patients with cystic fibrosis chronically infected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2003; 290: 1749-1756. (Pubitemid 37430625)
34. Clement A, Tamalet A, Leroux E, et al. Long term effects of azithromycin in patients with cystic fibrosis: a double blind, placebo controlled trial. Thorax 2006; 61: 895-902. (Pubitemid 44570311)
35. McCormack J, Bell S, Senini S, et al. Daily versus weekly azithromycin in cystic fibrosis patients. Eur Respir J 2007; 30: 487-495. (Pubitemid 351182072)
36. Saiman L, Anstead M, Mayer-Hamblett N, et al. Effect of azithromycin on pulmonary function in patients with cystic fibrosis uninfected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2010; 303: 1707-1715.
37. Saiman L, Mayer-Hamblett N, Anstead M, et al. Open-label, follow-on study of azithromycin in paediatric patients with CF uninfected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Pediatr Pulmonol 2012; 47: 641-648.
38. Ratjen F, Saiman L, Mayer-Hamblett N, et al. Effect of azithromycin on systemic markers of inflammation in cystic fibrosis patients uninfected with Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Chest 2012; 142: 1259-1266.
39. Martinez FJ, Curtis JL, Albert R. Role of macrolide therapy in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Int J Chron Obstruct Pulmon Dis 2008; 3: 331-350.
40. Southern KW, Barker PM, Solis-Moya A, et al. Macrolide antibiotics for cystic fibrosis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 11: CD002203.
41. Robinson P, Schechter MS, Sly PD, et al. Clarithromycin therapy for patients with cystic fibrosis: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Pulmonol 2012; 47: 551-557.
42. Barker AF. Bronchiectasis. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 1383-1393. (Pubitemid 34754612)
43. Gaga M, Bentley AM, Humbert M, et al. Increases in CD4+ T lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils and interleukin 8 positive cells in the airways of patients with bronchiectasis. Thorax 1998; 53: 685-691. (Pubitemid 28378485)
44. Koh YY, Lee MH, Sun YH, et al. Effect of roxithromycin on airway responsiveness in children with bronchiectasis: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur Respir J 1997; 10: 994-999. (Pubitemid 27201800)
45. Tsang KW, Ho PI, Chan KN, et al. A pilot study of low-dose erythromycin in bronchiectasis. Eur Respir J 1999; 13: 361-364. (Pubitemid 29086834)
46. Yalçin E, Kiper N, Ozçelik U, et al. Effects of clarithromycin on inflammatory parameters and clinical conditions in children with bronchiectasis. J Clin Pharm Ther 2006; 31: 49-55.
47. Davies G,Wilson R. Prophylactic antibiotic treatment of bronchiectasis with azithromycin. Thorax 2004; 59: 540-541.
48. Wong C, Jayaram L, Karalus N, et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis (EMBRACE): a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 380: 660-667.
49. Bateman ED, Hurd SS, Barnes PJ, et al. Global strategy for asthma management and prevention: GINA executive summary. Eur Respir J 2008; 31: 43-78.
50. Huang YJ, Nelson CE, Brodie EL, et al. Airway microbiota and bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with suboptimally controlled asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2011; 127: 372-381.
51. Specjalski K, Jassem E. Chlamydophila pneumoniae, Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections, and asthma control. Allergy Asthma Proc 2011; 32: 9-17.
52. Kostadima E, Tsiodras S, Alexopoulos EI, et al. Clarithromycin reduces the severity of bronchial hyperresponsiveness in patients with asthma. Eur Respir J 2004; 23: 714-717. (Pubitemid 38618141)
53. Zeiger RS, Schatz M, Sperling W, et al. Efficacy of troleandomycin in outpatients with severe, corticosteroiddependent asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1980; 66: 438-446. (Pubitemid 11207450)
54. Kamada AK, Hill MR, Ikle DN, et al. Efficacy and safety of low-dose troleandomycin therapy in children with severe, steroid-requiring asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1993; 91: 873-882. (Pubitemid 23118504)
55. Nelson HS, Hamilos DL, Corsello PR, et al. A double-blind study of troleandomycin and methylprednisolone in asthmatic subjects who require daily corticosteroids. Am Rev Respir Dis 1993; 147: 398-404. (Pubitemid 23044914)
56. Black PN, Blasi F, Jenkins CR, et al. Trial of roxithromycin in subjects with asthma and serological evidence of infection with Chlamydia pneumoniae. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2001; 164: 536-541. (Pubitemid 32801652)
57. Kraft M, Cassell GH, Pak J, et al. Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in asthma: effect of clarithromycin. Chest 2002; 121: 1782-1788. (Pubitemid 34634396)
58. Sutherland ER, King TS, Icitovic N, et al. A trial of clarithromycin for the treatment of suboptimally controlled asthma. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2010; 126: 747-753.
59. Richeldi L, Ferrara G, Fabbri LM, et al. Macrolides for chronic asthma. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005; 4: CD002997.
60. Strunk RC, Bacharier LB, Phillips BR, et al. Azithromycin or montelukast as inhaled corticosteroid-sparing agents in moderate-to-severe childhood asthma study. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2008; 122: 1138-1144.
61. Mathers CD, Boerma T, Ma Fat D. Global and regional causes of death. Br Med Bull 2009; 92: 7-32.
62. Vestbo J, Edwards LD, Scanlon PD, et al. Changes in forced expiratory volume in 1 second over time in COPD. N Engl J Med 2011; 65: 1184-1192.
63. Soler-Cataluna JJ, Martinez-Garcia MA, Roman Sanchez P, et al. Severe acute exacerbations and mortality in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 2005; 60: 925-931. (Pubitemid 41598207)
64. Seemungal T, Donaldson GC, Paul EA, et al. Effect of exacerbation on quality of life in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 1998; 157: 1418-1422.
65. Miravitlles M, Murio C, Guerrero T, et al. Pharmacoeconomic evaluation of acute exacerbations of chronic bronchitis and COPD. Chest 2002; 121: 1449-1455. (Pubitemid 34499654)
66. Burge PS, Calverley PMA, Jones PW, et al. Randomised, double blind, placebo controlled study of fluticasone propionate in patients with moderate to severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the ISOLDE trial. BMJ 2000; 320: 1297-1303. (Pubitemid 30245717)
67. Calverley PMA, Anderson JA, Celli B, et al. Salmeterol and fluticasone propionate and survival in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2007; 356: 775-789. (Pubitemid 46294610)
68. Tashkin DP, Celli B, Senn S, et al. A 4-year trial of tiotropium in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 1543-1554.
69. Welte T, Miravitlles M, Hernandez P, et al. Efficacy and tolerability of budesonide/formoterol added to tiotropium in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2009; 180: 741-750.
70. Bateman ED, Rabe KF, Calverley PM, et al. Roflumilast with long-acting b2-agonists for COPD: influence of exacerbation history. Eur Respir J 2011; 38: 553-560.
71. Aaron SD, Vandemheen KL, Fergusson D, et al. Tiotropium in combination with placebo, salmeterol, or fluticasone-salmeterol for treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: a randomized trial. Ann Intern Med 2007; 146: 545-555. (Pubitemid 351650535)
72. Yamaya M, Azuma A, Takizawa H, et al. Macrolide effects on the prevention of COPD exacerbations. Eur Respir J 2012; 40: 485-494.
73. Yamaya M, Azuma A, Tanaka H, et al. Inhibitory effects of macrolide antibiotics on exacerbations and hospitalization in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in Japan: a retrospective multicenter analysis. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008; 56: 1358-1360.
74. Banerjee D, Khair OA, Honeybourne D. The effect of oral clarithromycin on health status and sputum bacteriology in stable COPD. Respir Med 2005; 99: 208-215. (Pubitemid 40104276)
75. Suzuki T, Yanai M, Yamaya M, et al. Erythromycin and common cold in COPD. Chest 2001; 120: 730-733. (Pubitemid 32885442)
76. Blasi F, Bonardi D, Aliberti S, et al. Long-term azithromycin use in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and tracheostomy. Pulm Pharmacol Ther 2010; 3: 200-207.
77. Gómez J, Baños V, Simarro E, et al. Estudio prospective y comparativo (1994-1998) sobre la influencia corto profiláctico con azitromicina en pacientes con EPOC evolucionada. [Prospective, comparative study (1994-1998) of the influence of short-term prophylactic treatment with azithromycin on patients with advanced COPD.]. Rev Esp Quimioter 2000; 13: 379-383. (Pubitemid 32125753)
78. He ZY, Ou LM, Zhang JQ, et al. Effect of 6 months of erythromycin treatment on inflammatory cells in induced sputum and exacerbations in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Respiration 2010; 80: 445-452.
79. Seemungal TA, Wilkinson TM, Hurst JR, et al. Long-term erythromycin therapy is associated with decreased chronic obstructive pulmonary disease exacerbations. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2008; 178: 1139-1147.
80. Albert RK, Connett J, Bailey WC, et al. Azithromycin for prevention of exacerbations of COPD. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 689-698.
81. Sethi S, Murphy TF. Infection in the pathogenesis and course of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. N Engl J Med 2008; 359: 2355-2365.
82. Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management and Prevention of COPD, Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease (GOLD) 2013. Available from: www.goldcopd.org.
83. Marras T, Chan C. Obliterative bronchiolitis complicating bone marrow transplantation. Semin Respir Crit Care Med 2003; 24: 531-541. (Pubitemid 37542847)
84. Gottlieb J, Szangolies J, Koehnlein T, et al. Long-term azithromycin for bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome after lung transplantation. Transplantation 2008; 85: 36-41.
85. Verleden GM, Vanaudenaerde BM, Dupont LJ, et al. Azithromycin reduces airway neutrophilia and interleukin-8 in patients with bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006; 174: 566-570. (Pubitemid 44330550)
86. Vanaudenaerde BM, Meyts I, Vos R, et al. A dichotomy in bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome after lung transplantation revealed by azithromycin therapy. Eur Respir J 2008; 32: 832-843.
87. Jain R, Hachem RR, Morrell MR, et al. Azithromycin is associated with increased survival in lung transplant recipients with bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome. J Heart Lung Transplant 2010; 29: 531-537.
88. Collins JG. Prevalence of selected chronic conditions: United States, 1990-1992. Vital Health Stat 1997; 194: 1-89.
89. Hashiba M, Baba S. Efficacy of long-term administration of clarithromycin in the treatment of intractable chronic sinusitis. Acta Otolaryngol Suppl 1996; 525: 73-78. (Pubitemid 26332367)
90. Kimura N, Nishioka K, Nishizaki K, et al. Clinical effect of low-dose, long-term roxithromycin chemotherapy in patients with chronic sinusitis. Acta Med Okayama 1997; 51: 33-37. (Pubitemid 127457674)
91. Suzuki H, Shimomura A, Ikeda K. Effects of long-term low-dose macrolide administration on neutrophil recruitment and IL-8 in the nasal discharge of chronic sinusitis patients. Tohoku J Exp Med 1997; 182: 115-124. (Pubitemid 27435251)
92. Yamada T, Fujieda S, Mori S, et al. Macrolide treatment decreased the size of nasal polyps and IL-8 levels in nasal lavage. Am J Rhinol 2000; 14: 143-148. (Pubitemid 30441214)
93. Suzuki H, Takahashi Y, Wataya H, et al. Mechanism of neutrophil recruitment induced by IL-8 in chronic sinusitis. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1996; 98: 659-970.
94. Tamaoki J. The effects of macrolides on inflammatory cells. Chest 2004; 125: 41S-50S.
95. Videler WJ, Badia L, Harvey RJ, et al. Lack of efficacy of long-term, low-dose azithromycin in chronic rhinosinusitis: a randomized controlled trial. Allergy 2011; 66: 1457-1468.
96. Fokkens WJ, Lund VJ, Mullol J, et al. European position paper on rhinosinusitis and nasal polyps 2012. Rhinol Suppl 2012; 23: 1-298.
97. Wuyts WA, Willems S, Vos R, et al. Azithromycin reduces pulmonary fibrosis in a bleomycin mouse model. Exp Lung Res 2010; 36: 602-614.
98. Guillot L, Tabary O, Nathan N, et al. Macrolides: new therapeutic perspectives in lung diseases. Int J Biochem Cell Biol 2010; 43: 1241-1246.
99. Cordier JF. Cryptogenic organising pneumonia. Eur Respir J 2006; 28: 422-446.
100. Stover DE, Mangino D. Macrolides: a treatment alternative for bronchiolitis obliterans organizing pneumonia? Chest 2005; 128: 3611-3617. (Pubitemid 41698700)
101. Hotta M. Neutrophil chemotactic activity in cryptogenic organizing pneumonia and the response to erythromycin. Kurume Med J 1996; 43: 207-217.
102. Rubenfeld GD, Caldwell E, Peabody E, et al. Incidence and outcomes of acute lung injury. N Engl J Med 2005; 353: 1685-1693. (Pubitemid 41464707)
103. Walkey AJ,Wiener RS.Macrolide antibiotics and survival in patients with acute lung injury. Chest 2012; 141: 1153-1159.
104. Hall CB, Weinberg GA, Iwane MK, et al. The burden of respiratory syncytial virus infection in young children. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 588-598.
105. Subcommittee on Diagnosis and Management of Bronchiolitis. Diagnosis and management of bronchiolitis. Pediatrics 2006; 118: 1774-1793.
106. Lee SM, Gardy JL, Cheung CY, et al. Systems-level comparison of host-responses elicited by avian H5N1 and seasonal H1N1 influenza viruses in primary human macrophages. PLoS One 2009; 4: e8072.
107. Tahan F, Ozcan A, Koc N. Clarithromycin in the treatment of RSV bronchiolitis: a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Eur Respir J 2007; 29: 91-97. (Pubitemid 46092003)
108. Kneyber MCJ, Van Woensel JBM, Uijtendaal E, et al. Azithromycin does not improve disease course in hospitalized infants with respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) lower respiratory tract disease: a randomized equivalence trial. Pediatr Pulmonol 2008; 43: 142-149. (Pubitemid 351273041)
109. Spurling GKP, Doust J, Del Mar CB, et al. Antibiotics for bronchiolitis in children. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2011; 6: CD005189.
110. Sawabuchi T, Suzuki S, Iwase K, et al. Boost of mucosal secretory immunoglobulin A response by clarithromycin in paediatric influenza. Respirology 2009; 14: 1173-1179.
111. Wallace MR, Miller LK, Nguyen MT, et al. Ototoxicity with azithromycin. Lancet 1994; 343: 241.
112. Volberg WA, Koci BJ, Su W, et al. Blockade of human cardiac potassium channel human ether-a-go-go-related gene (HERG) by macrolide antibiotics. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2002; 302: 320-327. (Pubitemid 34680454)
113. Simko J, Csilek A, Karaszi J, et al. Proarrhythmic potential of antimicrobial agents. Infection 2008; 36: 194-206.
114. Ray WA, Murray KT, Hall K, et al. Azithromycin and the risk of cardiovascular death. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 1881-1890.
115. Bergman M, Huikko S, Huovinen P, et al. Macrolide and azithromycin use are linked to increased macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2006; 50: 3646-3650. (Pubitemid 44684876)
116. Lonks JR, Garau J, Medeiros AA. Implications of antimicrobial resistance in the empirical treatment of communityacquired respiratory tract infections: the case of macrolides. J Antimicrob Chemother 2002; 50: 87-92.
117. Phaff SJ, Tiddens HA, Verbrugh HA, et al. Macrolide resistance of Staphylococcus aureus and Haemophilus species associated with long-term azithromycin use in cystic fibrosis. J Antimicrob Chemother 2006; 57: 741-746.
118. Tramper-Stranders GA, Wolfs TF, Fleer A, et al. Maintenance azithromycin treatment in pediatric patients with cystic fibrosis: long-term outcomes related to macrolide resistance and pulmonary function. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2007; 26: 8-12. (Pubitemid 46045744)
119. K.asahara K, Kita E, Maeda K, et al. Macrolide resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae isolated during long-term macrolide therapy: difference between erythromycin and clarithromycin. J Infect Chemother 2005; 11: 112-114. (Pubitemid 40645887)
120. Esther CR Jr, Esserman DA, Gilligan P, et al. Chronic Mycobacterium abscessus infection and lung function decline in cystic fibrosis. J Cyst Fibros 2010; 9: 117-123.
121. Roux AL, Catherinot E, Ripoll F, et al. Multicenter study of prevalence of nontuberculous mycobacteria in patients with cystic fibrosis in France. J Clin Microbiol 2009; 47: 4124-4128.
122. Renna M, Schaffner C, Brown K, et al. Azithromycin blocks autophagy and may predispose cystic fibrosis patients to mycobacterial infection. J Clin Invest 2011; 121: 3554-3563.
123. US National Institutes of Health. ClinicalTrials.gov. http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/results? term5respiratory+diseases+AND+macrolides&pg52 Date last accessed: May 7, 2013. Date last updated: May 3, 2013.
124. Jain R, Danziger LH. The macrolide antibiotics: a pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic overview. Curr Pharm Des 2004; 10: 3045-3053. (Pubitemid 39242900)