Formation, precursors, control, and occurrence of nitrosamines in drinking water: A review

Water Research

Volumn 47, Issue 13, 2013, Pages 4433-4450

  Krasner, Stuart W ^a   Mitch, William A ^b   McCurry, Daniel L ^b   Hanigan, David ^c   Westerhoff, Paul ^c  

^a METROPOLITAN WATER DISTRICT OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b Yale University   (United States)

^c Arizona State University   (United States)

Author keywords

Chloramination; Disinfection by products; Drinking water; NDMA; Nitrosamines; PolyDADMAC; Wastewater

Indexed keywords

ACTIVATED CARBON; AMINATION; AMINES; AMMONIA; EFFLUENTS; ION EXCHANGE RESINS; NITROSAMINES; SEWAGE; SURVEYS; WASTEWATER; WASTEWATER TREATMENT; WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS;

ANION EXCHANGE RESINS; CHLORAMINATION; CHLORINATED DRINKING WATERS; DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCT; N-NITROSODIMETHYLAMINE; NDMA; PERSONAL CARE PRODUCTS; POLYDADMAC;

POTABLE WATER;

AMMONIA; ANION EXCHANGE RESIN; CHLORAMINE DERIVATIVE; CHLORINE; DIMETHYLNITROSAMINE; DRINKING WATER; ORGANIC MATTER;

AMMONIA; CHLORINATION; CHLORINE; COAGULATION; DRINKING WATER; DRUG; EFFLUENT; LITERATURE REVIEW; OZONE; WASTEWATER;

ADSORPTION; CHLORINATION; FILTRATION; OZONATION; PHOTOLYSIS; POLYMERIZATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; WASTE WATER; WATER POLLUTION CONTROL; WATER SUPPLY; WATER TREATMENT;

EID: 84879023075     PISSN: 00431354     EISSN: 18792448     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2013.04.050     Document Type: Review

References (121)

1. Andra S.S., Makris K.C. Tobacco-specific nitrosamines in water: an unexplored environmental health risk. Environment International 2011, 37(2):412-417.
2. Andrzejewski P., Kasprzyk-Hordern B., Nawrocki J. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation during ozonation of dimethylamine-containing waters. Water Research 2008, 42(4-5):863-870.
3. Asami M., Oya M., Kosaka K. A nationwide survey of NDMA in raw and drinking water in Japan. Science of the Total Environment 2009, 407(11):3540-3545.
4. ATSDR Toxicological Profile for N-Nitrosodimethylamine 1989, Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service in Collaboration with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
5. Barker D.J., Stuckey D.C. A review of soluble microbial products (SMP) in wastewater treatment systems. Water Research 1999, 33(14):3063-3082.
6. Becker N., Bennett D., Bolto B., Dixon D., Eldridge R., Le N., Rye C. Detection of polyelectrolytes at trace levels in water by fluorescent tagging. Reactive and Functional Polymers 2004, 60:183-193.
7. Bolto B. Reaction of chlorine with organic polyelectrolytes in water treatment: a review. Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology-Aqua 2005, 54(8):531-544.
8. Bolto B., Gregory J. Organic polyelectrolytes in water treatment. Water Research 2007, 41(11):2301-2324.
9. Bond T., Huang J., Templeton M.R., Graham N. Occurrence and control of nitrogenous disinfection by-products in drinking water - a review. Water Research 2011, 45(15):4341-4354.
10. Boyd J.M., Hrudey S.E., Richardson S.D., Li X.F. Solid-phase extraction and high-performance liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis of nitrosamines in treated drinking water and wastewater. Trac-trends in Analytical Chemistry 2011, 30(9):1410-1421.
11. Bull R.J., Reckhow D.A., Rotello V., Bull O.M., Kim J. Use of Toxicological and Chemical Models to Prioritize DBP 2006, AWWARF and AWWA, Denver, CO.
12. CDPH NDMA and Other Nitrosamines - Drinking Water Issues 2009, http://www.cdph.ca.gov/certlic/drinkingwater/Pages/NDMA.aspx.
13. Charrois J.W.A., Hrudey S.E. Breakpoint chlorination and free-chlorine contact time: implications for drinking water N-nitrosodimethylamine concentrations. Water Research 2007, 41(3):674-682.
14. Chen B., Westerhoff P. Predicting disinfection by-product formation potential in water. Water Research 2010, 44(13):3755-3762.
15. Chen W.H., Young T.M. NDMA formation during chlorination and chloramination of aqueous diuron solutions. Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42(4):1072-1077.
16. Chen Z., Valentine R.L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from humic substances in natural water. Environmental Science & Technology 2007, 41(17):6059-6065.
17. Chen Z., Valentine R.L. The influence of the pre-oxidation of natural organic matter on the formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA). Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42(14):5062-5067.
18. Choi J., Valentine R.L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from reaction of monochloramine: a new disinfection by-product. Water Research 2002, 36(4):817-824.
19. Choi J., Valentine R.L. N-Nitrosodimethylamine formation by free-chlorine-enhanced nitrosation of dimethylamine. Environmental Science & Technology 2003, 37(21):4871-4876.
20. Dai N., Mitch W.A. Relative importance of N-nitrosodimethylamine compared to total N-nitrosamines in drinking waters. Environmental Science & Technology 2013, 10.1021/es305225b.
21. Dai N., Shah A., Hu L., Plewa M.J., McKague A.B., Mitch W.A. Measurement of nitrosamine and nitramine formation from NO(x) reactions with amines during amine-based carbon dioxide capture for post-combustion carbon sequestration. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(17):793-801.
22. Diehl A.C., Speitel G.E., Symons J.M., Krasner S.W., Hwang S.J., Barrett S.E. DBP formation during chloramination. Journal American Water Works Association 2000, 92(6):76-90.
23. Dillon G., Blake S., Rumsby P., Rockett L., Hall T., Jackson P., Rawlinson A. NDMA: Concentrations in Drinking Water and Factors Affecting its Formation 2008, Defra Report 7348, London.
24. Dotson A., Westerhoff P., Krasner S.W. Nitrogen enriched dissolved organic matter (DOM) isolates and their affinity to form emerging disinfection by-products. Water Science and Technology 2009, 60(1):135-143.
25. Farré M.J., Reungoat J., Argaud F.X., Rattier M., Keller J., Gernjak W. Fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine, trihalomethane and haloacetic acid precursors in tertiary treatment including biofiltration. Water Research 2011, 45(17):5695-5704.
26. Gan X., Karanfil T. The treatment of an effluent impacted stream water with MIEX. Proceedings of the 2012 American Water Works Association Annual Conference, Denver, Colo 2012.
27. Gerecke A.C., Sedlak D.L. Precursors of N-nitrosodimethylamine in natural waters. Environmental Science & Technology 2003, 37(7):1331-1336.
28. Goslan E.H., Krasner S.W., Bower M., Rocks S.A., Holmes P., Levy L.S., Parsons S.A. A comparison of disinfection by-products found in chlorinated and chloraminated drinking waters in Scotland. Water Research 2009, 43(18):4698-4706.
29. Hanigan D., Zhang J., Herckes P., Krasner S.W., Chen C., Westerhoff P. Adsorption of N-Nitrosodimethylamine precursors by powdered and granular activated carbon. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46:12630-12639.
30. Hwang Y., Matsuo T., Hanaki K., Suzuki N. Removal of odorous compounds in wastewater by using activated carbon, ozonation and aerated biofilter. Water Research 1994, 28(11):2309-2319.
31. Incavo J.A., Schafer M.A. Simplified method for the determination of N-nitrosamines in rubber vulcanizates. Analytica Chimica Acta 2006, 557(1-2):256-261.
32. Kemper J.M., Westerhoff P., Dotson A., Mitch W.A. Nitrosamine, dimethylnitramine, and chloropicrin formation during strong base anion-exchange treatment. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(2):466-472.
33. Kemper J.M., Walse S.S., Mitch W.A. Quaternary amines as nitrosamine precursors: a role for consumer products?. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44(4):1224-1231.
34. Kimoto W.I., Dooley C.J., Carre J., Fiddler W. Role of strong ion-exchange resins in nitrosamine formation in water. Water Research 1980, 14(7):869-876.
35. Kohut K.D., Andrews S.A. Polyelectrolyte age and N-nitrosodimethylamine formation in drinking water treatment. Water Quality Research Journal of Canada 2003, 38(4):719-735.
36. Kolpin D.W., Furlong E.T., Meyer M.T., Thurman E.M., Zaugg S.D., Barber L.B., Buxton H.T. Pharmaceuticals, hormones, and other organic wastewater contaminants in US streams, 1999-2000: a national reconnaissance. Environmental Science & Technology 2002, 36(6):1202-1211.
37. Kosaka K., Asami M., Konno Y., Oya M., Kunikane S. Identification of antiyellowing agents as precursors of N-nitrosodimethylamine production on ozonation from sewage treatment plant influent. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(14):5236-5241.
38. Krasner S.W., Sclimenti M.J., Guo Y.C., Hwang C.J., Westerhoff P. Development of DBP and nitrosamine formation potential tests for treated wastewater, reclaimed water, and drinking water. Proceedings of the 2004 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2004.
39. Krasner S.W., Sclimenti M.J., Mitch W., Westerhoff P., Dotson A. Using formation potential tests to elucidate the reactivity of DBP precursors with chlorine versus with chloramines. Proceedings of the 2007 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2007.
40. Krasner S.W., Westerhoff P., Chen B., Amy G., Nam S., Chowdhury Z., Sinha S., Rittmann B. Contribution of Wastewater to DBP Formation 2008, AwwaRF, Denver, Colo.
41. Krasner S.W. The formation and control of emerging disinfection by-products of health concern. Philosophical Transactions Royal Society A 2009, 367:4077-4095.
42. Krasner S.W., Westerhoff P., Chen B., Rittmann B.E., Amy G. Occurrence of disinfection byproducts in United States wastewater treatment plant effluents. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(21):8320-8325.
43. Krasner S.W., Westerhoff P., Chen B., Rittmann B.E., Nam S.N., Amy G. Impact of wastewater treatment processes on organic carbon, organic nitrogen, and DBP precursors in effluent organic matter. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(8):2911-2918.
44. Krasner S.W., Westerhoff P., Chen B.Y., Rittmann B.E., Amy G. Occurrence of disinfection byproducts in United States wastewater treatment plant effluents. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(21):8320-8325.
45. Krasner S.W., Lee C.F.T., Garcia E.A., Mitch W. A simulated distribution system test to predict the formation of nitrosamines, THMs, and HAAs in drinking water. Proceedings of the 2011 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2011.
46. Krasner S.W., Lee C.F.T., Mitch W.A., von Gunten U. Development of a Bench-Scale Test to Predict the Formation of Nitrosamines 2012, Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colo.
47. Krasner S.W., Mitch W.A., Westerhoff P., Dotson A. Formation and control of emerging C- and N-DBPs in drinking water. Journal American Water Works Association 2012, 104(11):33-34. http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2012.104.0148.
48. Krasner S.W., Sclimenti M.J., Lee C.F.T. Occurrence and formation of NDMA in Consecutive Systems in a Major Metropolitan Area. Proceedings of the 2012 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2012.
49. Krasner S.W., Westerhoff P., Mitch W.A., Skadsen J. Case studies on nitrosamine formation and control at full-scale drinking water treatment plants. Proceedings of the 2012 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2012.
50. Krauss M., Longree P., Van Houtte E., Cauwenberghs J., Hollender J. Assessing the fate of nitrosamine precursors in wastewater treatment by physicochemical fractionation. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44(20):7871-7877.
51. Kulshrestha P., McKinstry K.C., Fernandez B.O., Feelisch M., Mitch W.A. Application of an optimized total N-nitrosamine (TONO) assay to pools: placing N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) determinations into perspective. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44(9):3369-3375.
52. Labernik S., Liang S., Yates R., Yun T. Formation and control of NDMA with cationic polymers. Presented at 2010 AmericanWater Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Savannah, GA 2010.
53. Le Roux J., Gallard H., Croue J.P. Chloramination of nitrogenous contaminants (pharmaceuticals and pesticides): NDMA and halogenated DBPs formation. Water Research 2011, 45(10):3164-3174.
54. Le Roux J., Gallard H., Croue J.P. Formation of NDMA and halogenated DBPs by chloramination of tertiary amines: the influence of bromide ion. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(3):1581-1589.
55. Le Roux J., Gallard H., Croué J.P. NDMA Formation mechanism by chloramination of tertiary amines. Proceedings of the 2012 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2012.
56. Lee C., Schmidt C., Yoon J., von Gunten U. Oxidation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors with ozone and chlorine dioxide: kinetics and effect on NDMA formation potential. Environmental Science & Technology 2007, 41(6):2056-2063.
57. Lee C., Lee Y., Schmidt C., Yoon J., Von Gunten U. Oxidation of suspected N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors by ferrate (VI): kinetics and effect on the NDMA formation potential of natural waters. Water Research 2008, 42(1-2):433-441.
58. Lee W., Westerhoff P. Dissolved organic nitrogen removal during water treatment by aluminum sulfate and cationic polymer coagulation. Water Research 2006, 40(20):3767-3774.
59. Lee W., Westerhoff P., Croue J.P. Dissolved organic nitrogen as a precursor for chloroform, dichloroacetonitrile, N-Nitrosodimethylamine, and trichloronitromethane. Environmental Science and Technology 2007, 41(15):5485-5490.
60. Lee Y., von Gunten U. Oxidative transformation of micropollutants during municipal wastewater treatment: comparison of kinetic aspects of selective (chlorine, chlorine dioxide, ferrate(VI), and ozone) and non-selective oxidants (hydroxyl radical). Water Research 2010, 44(2):555-566.
61. Liang S., Dale M.S., Lee C.F.(T.), Krasner S.W. NDMA occurrence in Metropolitan's treated waters. Proceedings of the 2009 American Water Works Association Annual Conference, Denver, Colo 2009.
62. Liew D., Linge K.L., Joll C., Heitz A., Trolio R., Breckler L., Henderson R., Charrois J.W.A. Formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products (N-DBPs) in raw and treated drinking water. 2011 Oz Water Conference 2011.
63. Luh J., Marinas B.J. Bromide ion effect on N-nitrosodimethylamine formation by monochloramine. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(9):5085-5092.
64. Ma F., Wan Y., Yuan G., Meng L., Dong Z., Hu J. Occurrence and source of nitrosamines and secondary amines in groundwater and its adjacent Jialu River Basin, China. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(6):3236-3243.
65. McGuire M.J., Meadow R.G. AWWARF trihalomethane survey. Journal American Water Works Association 1988, 80(1):61-68.
66. Mitch W., Krasner S., Westerhoff P., Dotson A. Occurence and Formation of Nitrogenous Disinfection By-products 2009, Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colo.
67. Mitch W.A., Sedlak D.L. Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) from dimethylamine during chlorination. Environmental Science & Technology 2002, 36(4):588-595.
68. Mitch W.A., Gerecke A.C., Sedlak D.L. A N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursor analysis for chlorination of water and wastewater. Water Research 2003, 37(15):3733-3741.
69. Mitch W.A., Sharp J.O., Trussell R.R., Valentine R.L., Alvarez-Cohen L., Sedlak D.L. N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) as a drinking water contaminant: a review. Environmental Engineering Science 2003, 20(5):389-404.
70. Mitch W.A., Sedlak D.L. Characterization and fate of N-nitrosodimethylamine precursors in municipal wastewater treatment plants. Environmental Science & Technology 2004, 38(5):1445-1454.
71. Mitch W.A., Oelker G.L., Hawley E.L., Deeb R.A., Sedlak D.L. Minimization of NDMA formation during chlorine disinfection of municipal wastewater by application of pre-formed chloramines. Environmental Engineering Science 2005, 22(6):882-890.
72. Mitch W.A., Schreiber I.M. Degradation of tertiary alkylamines during chlorination/chloramination: Implications for formation of aldehydes, nitriles, halonitroalkanes, and nitrosamines. Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42(13):4811-4817.
73. Morran J., Whittle M., Fabris R.B., Harris M., Leach J.S., Newcombe G., Drikas M. Nitrosamines from pipeline materials in drinking water distribution systems. Journal American Water Works Association 2011, 103(10):76-82.
74. Najm I., Trussell R.R. NDMA formation in water and wastewater. Journal American Water Works Association 2001, 93(2):92-99.
75. Nawrocki J., Andrzejewski P. Nitrosamines and water. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2011, 189(1-2):1-18.
76. Newcombe G., Morran J., Culbert J., Slyman N., Leach J., Kapralos C. Occurrence and Management of NDMA and Other Nitrogenous Disinfection By-products in Australian Drinking and Recycled Waters 2012, WQRA Project 1018 Milestone 5 Report, Australian Water Quality Centre, Adelaide, South Australia.
77. Novak J.T., Montgomery G.E. Chemical sludge dewatering on sand beds. Journal of the Environmental Engineering Division 1975, 101(1):1-14.
78. Novak J.T., Langford M. Use of Polymers for Improving Chemical Sludge Dewatering on Sand Beds 1977, 94-106. Ann Arbor Science.
79. OEHHA Public Health Goal for Chemicals in Drinking Water: N-Nitrosodimethylamine 2006, http://www.oehha.ca.gov/water/phg/pdf/122206NDMAphg.pdf.
80. Padhye L., Wang P., Karanfil T., Huang C.H. Unexpected role of activated carbon in promoting transformation of secondary amines to N-nitrosamines. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44(11):4161-4168.
81. Padhye L., Luzinova Y., Cho M., Mizaikoff B., Kim J.H., Huang C.H. PolyDADMAC and dimethylamine as precursors of N-nitrosodimethylamine during ozonation: reaction kinetics and mechanisms. Environmental Science & Technology 2011, 45(10):4353-4359.
82. Padhye L.P., Hertzberg B., Yushin G., Huang C.H. N-Nitrosamines formation from secondary amines by nitrogen fixation on the surface of activated carbon. Environmental Science & Technology 2011, 45(19):8368-8376.
83. Padhye L.P., Kim J.H., Huang C.H. Oxidation of dithiocarbamates to yield N-nitrosamines by water disinfection oxidants. Water Research 2013, 47(2):725-736.
84. Park S.H., Wei S., Mizaikoff B., Taylor A.E., Favero C., Huang C.H. Degradation of amine-based water treatment polymers during chloramination as N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(5):1360-1366.
85. Pehlivanoglu-Mantas E., Sedlak D.L. Measurement of dissolved organic nitrogen forms in wastewater effluents: concentrations, size distribution and NDMA formation potential. Water Research 2008, 42(14):3890-3898.
86. Redding A.M., Cannon F.S., Snyder S.A., Vanderford B.J. A QSAR-like analysis of the adsorption of endocrine disrupting compounds, pharmaceuticals, and personal care products on modified activated carbons. Water Research 2009, 43(15):3849-3861.
87. Ridd J.H. Nitrosation, diazotisation, and deamination. Quarterly Reviews 1961, 15(4):418-441.
88. Russell C.G., Blute N.K., Via S., Wu X., Chowdhury Z., More R. Nationwide assessment of nitrosamine occurrence and trends. Journal AWWA 2012, 104(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.5942/jawwa.2012.104.0037.
89. Sacher F., Schmidt C., Lee C., von Gunten U. Strategies for Minimizing Nitrosamine Formation during Disinfection 2008, Denver, Colo.
90. Schmidt C.K., Brauch H.J. N, N-dimethosulfamide as precursor for N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) formation upon ozonation and its fate during drinking water treatment. Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42(17):6340-6346.
91. Schreiber I.M., Mitch W.A. Influence of the order of reagent addition on NDMA formation during chloramination. Environmental Science & Technology 2005, 39(10):3811-3818.
92. Schreiber I.M., Mitch W.A. Nitrosamine formation pathway revisited: the importance of chloramine speciation and dissolved oxygen. Environmental Science & Technology 2006, 40(19):6007-6014.
93. Schreiber I.M., Mitch W.A. Occurrence and fate of nitrosamines and nitrosamine precursors in wastewater-impacted surface waters using boron as a conservative tracer. Environmental Science & Technology 2006, 40(10):3203-3210.
94. Schreiber I.M., Mitch W.A. Investigation of NDMA formation pathways: impact of breakpoint chlorination. Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society 2007, 233:545.
95. Schreiber I.M., Mitch W.A. Enhanced nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation near the breakpoint: Implications for nitrification control. Environmental Science & Technology 2007, 41(20):7039-7046.
96. Shah A., Mitch W.A. Halonitroalkanes, halonitriles, haloamides and N-nitrosamines: a critical review of nitrogenous disinfection byproduct (N-DBP) formation pathways. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(1):119-131.
97. Shah A.D., Krasner S.W., Lee C.F.T., von Gunten U., Mitch W.A. Trade-offs in disinfection byproduct formation associated with precursor preoxidation for control of N-nitrosodimethylamine formation. Environmental Science & Technology 2012, 46(9):4809-4818.
98. 2 assisted UV photodegradation of N-nitrosodimethylamine in simulated drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology 2003, 37(9):1933-1940.
99. Shen R., Andrews S.A. Demonstration of 20 pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) as nitrosamine precursors during chloramine disinfection. Water Research 2011, 45(2):944-952.
100. Shen R.Q., Andrews S.A. NDMA formation kinetics from three pharmaceuticals in four water matrices. Water Research 2011, 45(17):5687-5694.
101. Singer P.C., Flower R.C. Anion Exchange Resins as Sources of Nitrosamines and Nitrosamine Precursors 2012, Water Research Foundation, Denver, Colo.
102. Soltermann F., Lee M., Canonica S., von Gunten U. Enhanced N-nitrosamine formation in pool water by UV irradiation of chlorinated secondary amines in the presenceof monochloramine. Water Research 2013, 47(1):79-90.
103. Spiegelhalder B., Preussmann R. Nitrosamines and rubber. International Agency for Research on Cancer 1982, 41:231-243.
104. Swaim P., Smith T., Royce A., Assouline J., Maloney T., Carter B. Effectiveness of UV advanced oxidation for destruction of micro-pollutants. Proceedings of the 2006 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2006.
105. Teefy S., Chan C.C., Wong W., Work L. NDMA formation from gaskets used in Water Storage Tanks. Proceedings of the 2011 American Water Works Association Water Quality Technology Conference, Denver, Colo 2011.
106. Templeton M.R., Chen Z. NDMA and seven other nitrosamines in selected UK drinking water supply systems. Journal of Water Supply Research and Technology-Aqua 2010, 59(4):277-283.
107. Tugulea A.M., Aranda-Rodriguez R., Jay B., Kubwabo C., Koudjonou B. Emerging disinfection byproducts (NDMA, MX) in Canadian drinking water - a survey of fifteen distribution systems. 13th National Drinking Water Conferences, Quebec City, Canada 2008.
108. USEPA 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142. National primary drinking water regulations: stage 2 disinfectants and disinfection byproducts rule; final rule. Federal Register (Part II) 2006, 71(2):388.
109. USEPA Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule 2 (UCMR 2) 2006, http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ucmr/ucmr2/basicinformation.html#list.
110. USEPA Contaminant Candidate List 3 (CCL3) 2009, http://water.epa.gov/scitech/drinkingwater/dws/ccl/ccl3.cfm.
111. Valentine R.L., Choi J., Chen Z., Barrett S.E., Hwang C.J., Guo Y., Wehner M., Fitzsimmons S., Andrews S.A., Werker A.G., Brubacher C., Kohut K.D. Factors Affecting the Formation of NDMA in Water and Occurrence 2005, AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, Colo.
112. Von Gunten U., Salhi E., Schmidt C.K., Arnold W.A. Kinetics and mechanisms of N-nitrosodimethylamine formation upon ozonation of N, N-dimethylsulfamide-containing waters: bromide catalysis. Environmental Science & Technology 2010, 44(15):5762-5768.
113. Walse S.S., Mitch W.A. Nitrosamine carcinogens also swim in chlorinated pools. Environmental Science & Technology 2008, 42(4):1032-1037.
114. Wang C., Chen C., Wang J., Zhang X. Occurrence of N-Nitrosamines in drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) in China 2011, Presented at School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China.
115. Wang C., Chen C., Zhang X., Wang J. Characterization of natural organic matter as precursors for Nitrosamines: hydrophobicity, molecular weight and fluorescence. Presented at International Water Association Specialty Conference on Natural Organic Matter 2011.
116. Wang W.F., Ren S.Y., Zhang H.F., Yu J.W., An W., Hu J.Y., Yang M. Occurrence of nine nitrosamines and secondary amines in source water and drinking water: potential of secondary amines as nitrosamine precursors. Water Research 2011, 45(16):4930-4938.
117. White G.C. Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants 1999, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY. fourth ed.
118. Wilczak A., Assadi-Rad A., Lai H.H., Hoover L.L., Smith J.F., Berger R., Rodigari F., Beland J.W., Lazzelle L.J., Kincannon E.G., Baker H., Heaney C.T. Formation of NDMA in chloraminated water coagulated with DADMAC cationic polymer. Journal American Water Works Association 2003, 95(9):94-106.
119. Xu B., Ye T., Li D.P., Hu C.Y., Lin Y.L., Xia S.J., Tian F.X., Gao N.Y. Measurement of dissolved organic nitrogen in a drinking water treatment plant: size fraction, fate, and relation to water quality parameters. Science of the Total Environment 2011, 409(6):1116-1122.
120. Yang L., Chen Z.L., Shen J.M., Xu Z.Z., Liang H., Tian J.Y., Ben Y., Zhai X., Shi W.X., Li G.B. Reinvestigation of the nitrosamine-formation mechanism during ozonation. Environmental Science & Technology 2009, 43(14):5481-5487.
121. Zhang Z., Hu J., Leong Y.H., Fang W., Andrews S.A. Monitoring N-Nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) in Singapore drinking water 2010, Singapore International Water Week.