Pulmonary aspiration in perioperative medicine

Acta Anaesthesiologica Belgica

Volumn 64, Issue 1, 2013, Pages 1-13

  Abdulla, Susanne ^a,b  

^a OTTO VON GUERICKE UNIVERSITY   (Germany)

^b HANNOVER MEDICAL SCHOOL   (Germany)

Author keywords

Aspiration prophylaxis; Fasting guidelines; Morbidity and mortality; Perioperative pulmonary aspiration; Rapid sequence induction

Indexed keywords

ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; CORTICOSTEROID;

ARTIFICIAL VENTILATION; EMERGENCY MEDICINE; GASTROESOPHAGEAL REFLUX; GENERAL ANESTHESIA; HUMAN; INCIDENCE; INTENSIVE CARE UNIT; LARYNGEAL MASK; LARYNX; MORBIDITY; MORTALITY; ORGAN SIZE; PEROPERATIVE COMPLICATION; POSITIVE END EXPIRATORY PRESSURE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PROGNOSIS; PROPHYLAXIS; PULMONARY ASPIRATION; RECOVERY ROOM; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR; STOMACH CONTENT; STOMACH PH;

ANESTHESIA, GENERAL; FASTING; GUIDELINES AS TOPIC; HUMANS; LARYNGEAL MASKS; PATIENT POSITIONING; PERIOPERATIVE CARE; PNEUMONIA, ASPIRATION; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 84878661069     PISSN: 00015164     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (115)

1. Mendelson C. L., The aspiration of stomach contents into the lungs during obstetric anesthesia, AM. J. OBSTET. GYNECOL., 52, 191-205, 1946.
2. Ng A., Smith G., Gastroesophageal reflux and aspiration of gastric contents in anesthetic practice, ANESTH. ANALG., 93, 494-513, 2001. (Pubitemid 32701555)
3. Metzner J., Posner K. L., Lam M. S., Dmino K. B., Closed claims' analysis, BEST. PRACT. RES. CLIN. ANAESTHESIOL., 25, 263-276, 2011.
4. Cook T. M., Woodall N., Frerk C., Major complications of airway management in the UK: results of the Fourth National Audit Project of the Royal College of Anaesthetists and the Difficult Airway Society. Part 1, BR. J. ANAESTH., 106, 617-631, 2011.
5. Marik P. E., Aspiration pneumonitis and aspiration pneumonia, NEW. ENGL. J. MED., 344, 665-671, 2001. (Pubitemid 32183583)
6. Raghavendran K., Nemzek J., Napolitano L. M., Knight P. R., Aspiration-induced lung injury, CRIT. CARE. MED., 39, 818-826, 2011.
7. Mort T. C., Emergency tracheal intubation: complications associated with repeated laryngoscopy attemts, ANESTH. ANALG., 99, 607-613, 2004. (Pubitemid 38970445)
8. Peterson G. N., Domino K. B., Caplan R. A., Posner K. L., Lee L. A., Cheney F. W., Management of the difficult airway: a closed claims analysis, ANESTHESIOLOGY. 103, 33-39, 2005. (Pubitemid 40943134)
9. Virkkunen I., Ryynänen S., Kujala S., Vuori A., Piilonen A., Kääriä J. P., Kähärä V., Pettilä V., Yli-Hankala A., Silfvast T., Incidence of regurgitation and pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents in survivors from out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 51, 202-205, 2007. (Pubitemid 46143925)
10. Thorpe R., Benger J., Pre-procedural fasting in emergency sedation, EMERG. MED. J., 27, 254-261, 2010.
11. Warner MA., Warner ME., Weber JG., Clinical significance of pulmonary aspiration during the perioperative period, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 78, 56-62, 1993. (Pubitemid 23038979)
12. Sakai T., Planinsic R. M., Quinlan J. J., Handley L. J., Kim T. Y., Hilmi I. A., The incidence and outcome of perioperative pulmonary aspiration in a university hospital: a 4-year retrospective analysis, ANESTH. ANALG., 103, 941-947, 2006. (Pubitemid 44576702)
13. Neelakanta G., Chikyarappa A., A review of patients with pulmonary aspiration of gastric contents during anesthesia reported to the Departmental Quality Assurance Committee, J. CLIN. ANESTH., 18, 102-107, 2006.
14. Borland L. M., Sereika S. M., Woelfel S. K., Saitz E. W., Carrillo P. A., Lupin J. L., Motoyama E. K., Pulmonary aspiration in pediatric patients during general anesthesia: incidence and outcome, J. CLIN. ANESTH., 10, 95-102, 1998. (Pubitemid 28150613)
15. Murat I., Constant I., Maud'huy H., Perioperative anaesthetic morbidity in children: a database of 24,165 anaesthetics over a 30-month period, PAEDIATR. ANAESTH., 14, 158-166, 2004. (Pubitemid 38297225)
16. Lopez-Gil M., Brimacombe J., Alvarez M., Safety and efficacy of the laryngeal mask airway. A prospective survey of 1400 children, ANAESTHESIA. 51, 969-972, 1996. (Pubitemid 26343537)
17. Warner M. A., Warner M. E., Warner D. O., Warner L. O., Warner J. E., Perioperative pulmonary aspiration in infants and children, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 90, 66-71, 1999.
18. Tay C. L., Tan G. M., Ng S. B., Critical incidents in paediatric anaesthesia: an audit of 10,000 anaesthetics in Singapore, PAEDIATR. ANAESTH., 11, 711-718, 2001. (Pubitemid 33033480)
19. Mellin-Olsen J., Fasting S., Gisvold S. E., Routine preoperative gastric emptying is seldom indicated. A study of 85,594 anaesthetics with special focus on aspiration pneumonia, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 40, 1184-1188, 1996. (Pubitemid 26411383)
20. Charuluxananan S., Punjasawadwong Y., Suraseranivongse S., Srisawasdi S., Kyokong O., Chinachoti T., Chanchayanon T., Rungreungvanich M., Thienthong S., Sirinan C., Rodanant O., The Thai Anesthesia Incidents Study (THAI Study) of anesthetic outcomes: II. Anesthetic profiles and adverse events, J. MED. Assoc. THAI., 88 Suppl 7, S14-29, 2005. (Pubitemid 43170175)
21. Punjasawadwong Y., Srisawasi S., Werawatganon T., Taratarnkoolwatana K., Chau-in W., Vasinanukorn M., The Thai Anesthesia Incidents Study (THAI study) of ambulatory anesthesia: II. Anesthetic profiles and adverse events, J. MED. ASSOC. THAI, 91, 188-195, 2008. (Pubitemid 351413678)
22. Søreide E., Bjornestad E., Steen P. A., An audit of perioperative aspiration pneumonitis in gynaecological and obstetric patients, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 40, 14-19, 1996. (Pubitemid 26056485)
23. Ezri T., Szmuk P., Stein A., Konichezky S., Hagai T., Geva D., Peripartum general anaesthesia without tracheal intubation: incidence of aspiration pneumonia, ANAESTHESIA. 55, 421-426, 2000. (Pubitemid 30301439)
24. Dindelli M., La Rosa M., Rossi R., Di Nunno D., Piva L., Pagnoni B., Ferrari A., Incidence and complications of the aspiration of gastric contents syndrome during caesarean section in general anesthesia, ANN. OSTET. GINECOL., MED. PERINAT., 112, 376-384, 1991.
25. McDonnell N. J., Paech M. J., Clavisi O. M., Scott K. L., ANZCA Trials Group, Difficult and failed intubation in obstetric anaesthesia: an observational study of airway management and complications associated with general anaesthesia for caesarean section, INT. J. OBSTET. ANESTH., 17, 292-297, 2008.
26. Hawkins J. L., Koonin L. M., Palmer S. K., Gibbs C. P., Anesthesia-related deaths during obstetric delivery in the United States, 1979-1990, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 86, 277-284, 1997. (Pubitemid 27093371)
27. Stamer U. M., Wiese R., Stüber F., Wulf H., Meuser T., Change in anaesthetic practice for Caesarean section in Germany, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 49, 170-176, 2005. (Pubitemid 40313228)
28. Roofthooft E., Anesthesia for the morbidly obese parturient, CURR. OPIN. ANAESTHESIOL., 22, 341-346, 2009.
29. Loubert C., Fernando R., Caesarean delivery in the obese parturient: anaesthetic considerations, WOMENS. HEALTH. (LONDON. ENGL.), 7, 163-179, 2011.
30. Martin C., Auffray J. P., Ragni J., Guillen J. C., Auge A., Lambert D., Gouin F., Measurement of lower oesophageal pH during induction of anaesthesia: use of oesophageal probe, ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 36, 226-229, 1992.
31. Vanner R. G., Gastro-oesophageal reflux and regurgitation during general anaesthesia for termination of pregnancy, INT. J. OBSTET. ANESTH., 1: 123-128, 1992.
32. Kivela J. E., Sprung J., Southorn P. A., Watson J. C., Weingarten T. N., Anesthetic management of patients with Huntington disease, ANESTH. ANALG., 110, 515-523, 2010.
33. Istvan J., Belliveau M., Donati F., Rapid sequence induction for appendectomies: a retrospective case review analysis, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 57, 330-336, 2010.
34. Burkle C. M., Walsh M. T., Harrison B. A., Curry T. B., Rose S. H., Airway management after failure to intubate by direct laryngoscopy: outcomes in a large teaching hospital. CAN. J. ANAESTH., 52, 634-640, 2005. (Pubitemid 41149863)
35. Visvanathan T., Kluger M. T., Webb R. K., Westhorpe R. N., Crisis management during anaesthesia: laryngospasm, QUAL. SAF. HEALTH CARE, 14(3), e3, 2005.
36. Jean J., Compère V., Fourdrinier V., Marguerite C., Auquit-Auckbur I., Milliez P. Y., Dureuil B., The risk of pulmonary aspiration in patients after weight loss due to bariatric surgery, ANESTH. ANALG., 107, 1257-1259, 2008.
37. Byth P. L., Mullens A. J., Peri-operative care for oesophagectomy patients, AUST. CLIN. REV., 11, 45-50, 1991.
38. Suter M., Dorta G., Giusti V., Calmes J. M., Gastric banding interferes with esophageal motility and gastroesophageal reflux, ARCH. SURG., 140, 639-643, 2005. (Pubitemid 41123999)
39. Black D. R., Thangathurai D., Senthilkumar N., Roffey P., Mikhail M., High risk of aspiration and difficult intubation in post-esophagectomy patients. ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 43, 687, 1999. (Pubitemid 29289299)
40. Jankovic Z. B., Milosavljevic S., Stamenkovic D., Stojakov D., Sabljak P., Pesko P., High risk of aspiration and difficult intubation in post-esophagectomy patients, ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 44, 899-900, 2000. (Pubitemid 30483302)
41. Borsari T. E., Hilmi I. A., Sakai T., Perioperative pulmonary aspiration of patients who have had an esophagectomy with a gastric pull-up: the value of preoperative computed tomography of the neck, J. CUN. ANESTH., 23, 130-133, 2011.
42. Janda M., Scheeren T. W., Noldge-Schomburg G. F., Management of pulmonary aspiration, BEST. PRACT. RES. CLIN. ANAESTHESIOL., 20, 409-427, 2006. (Pubitemid 44317682)
43. Beck-Schimmer B., Bonvini J. M., Bronchoaspiration: incidence, consequences and management, EUR. J. ANAESTHESIOL., 28, 78-84, 2011.
44. Flick R. P., Schears G. J., Warner M. A., Aspiration in pediatric anesthesia: is there a higher incidence compared with adults?, CURR. OPIN. ANAESTHESIOL., 15, 323-327, 2002. (Pubitemid 34596911)
45. Kretz F. J., Krier C., A child with a full stomach has to be anaesthesized, ANÄSTHESIOL. INTENSIVMED. NOTFALLMED. SCHMERZTHER., 37, 514-519, 2002.
46. Kozlow J. H., Berenholtz S. M., Garrett E., Dorman T., Pronovost P. J., Epidemiology and impact of aspiration pneumonia in patients undergoing surgery in Maryland, 1999-2000, CRIT. CARE. MED., 31, 1930-1937, 2003. (Pubitemid 36900746)
47. Kluger M. T., Short T. G., Aspiration during anaesthesia: a review of 133 cases from the Australian Anaesthetic Incident Monitoring Study (AIMS), ANAESTHESIA, 54, 19-26, 1999. (Pubitemid 29026818)
48. Cooper G. M., McClure J. H., Maternal deaths from anaesthesia. An extract from Why Mothers Die 2000-2002, the Confidential Enquiries into Maternal Deaths in the United Kingdom, BR. J. ANAESTH., 94, 417-423, 2005.
49. Auroy Y., Benhamou D., Péquignot F., Bovet M., Jougla E., Lienhart A., Mortality related to anaesthesia in France: analysis of deaths related to airway complications, ANAESTHESIA, 64, 366-370, 2009.
50. Ishihara H., Singh H., Giesecke A. H., Relationship between diabetic autonomic neuropathy and gastric contents, ANESTH. ANALG., 78, 943-947, 1994. (Pubitemid 24138272)
51. Agnew N. M., Kendall J. B., Akrofi M., Tran J., Soorae A. S., Page R., Russell G. N., Pennefather S. H., Gastroesophageal reflux and tracheal aspiration in the thoracotomy position: should ranitidine premedication be routine?, ANESTH. ANALG., 95, 1645-1649, 2002. (Pubitemid 35423954)
52. Jeske H. C., The influence of postural changes on gastroesophageal reflux and barrier pressure in nonfasting individuals, ANESTH. ANALG., 101, 597-600, 2005.
53. Illing L., Duncan P. G., Yip R., Gastroesophageal reflux during anaesthesia, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 39, 466-470, 1992.
54. Kadar A. G., Ing C. H., White P. F., Wakefield C. A., Kramer B. A., Clark K., Anesthesia for electroconvulsive therapy in obese patients, ANESTH. ANALG., 94, 360-361, 2002. (Pubitemid 34106829)
55. Murphy G. S.,Brull S. J., Residual neuromuscular block: lessons unlearned. Part I: definitions, incidence, and adverse physiologic effects of residual neuromuscular block, ANESTH. ANALG., 111, 120-128, 2010.
56. Hardy J. F., Lepage Y., Bonneville-Chouinard N., Occurrence of gastro-esophageal reflux on induction of anaesthesia does not correlate with the volume of gastric content, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 37, 502-508, 1990. (Pubitemid 20223330)
57. Schwartz D. A., Connelly N. R., Theroux C. A., Gibson C. S., Ostrom D. N., Dunn S. M., Hirsch B. Z., Angelides A. G., Gastric contents in children presenting for upper endoscopy, ANESTH. ANALG., 87, 754-756, 1998.
58. Cook-Sather S. D., Gallagher P. R., Kruge L. E., Beus J. M., Ciampa B. P., Welch K. C., Shah-Hosseini S., Choi J. S., Pachikara R., Minger K., Litman R. S., Schreiner M. S., Overweight/obesity and gastric fluid characteristics in pediatric day surgery: implications for fasting guidelines and pulmonary aspiration risk, ANESTH. ANALG. 109, 727-736, 2009.
59. Schreiner M. S., Gastric fluid volume - is it really a risk factor for pulmonary aspiration?, ANESTH. ANALG., 87, 754-756, 1998. (Pubitemid 28455464)
60. Perlas A., Davis L., Khan M., Mitsakakis N., Chan V. W., Gastric sonography in the fasted surgical patient: a prospective descriptive study, ANESTH. ANALG., 113, 93-97, 2011.
61. Bouvet L., Mazoit J. X., Chassard D., Allaouchiche B., Boselli E., Benhamou D., Clinical assessment of the ultrasonographic measurement of antral area for estimating preoperative gastric content and volume, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 114, 1086-1092, 2011.
62. Roberts R. B., Shirley M. A., Reducing the risk of acid aspiration during cesarean section, ANESTH. ANALG., 53, 859-868, 1974.
63. Barker P., Langton J. A., Murphy P. J., Rowbothan D. J., Regurgitation of gastric contents during general anaesthesia using the laryngeal mask airway, BR. J. ANAESTH., 69, 314-315, 1992.
64. Akhtar T. M., Oesophageal Vent-Laryngeal Mask to prevent aspiration of gastric contents, BR. J. ANAESTH., 72, 52-54, 1994. (Pubitemid 24023562)
65. Ismail-Zade I. A., Vanner R. G., Regurgitation and aspiration of gastric contents in a child during general anaesthesia using the laryngeal mask airway, PAEDIATR. ANAESTH., 6, 325-328, 1996. (Pubitemid 126439756)
66. McCrory C. R., McShane A. J., Gastroesophageal reflux during spontaneous respiration with the laryngeal mask airway, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 46, 268-270, 1999. (Pubitemid 29198134)
67. Bernardini A., Natalini G., Risk of pulmonary aspiration with laryngeal mask airway and tracheal tube: analysis on 65712 procedures with positive pressure ventilation, ANAESTHESIA, 64, 1289-1294, 2009.
68. Evans N. R., Gardner S. V., James M. F., King J. A., Roux P., Bennett P., Nattrass R., Llewellyn R., Visu D., The ProSeal laryngeal mask: results of a descriptive trial with experience of 300 cases, BR. J. ANAESTH., 88, 534-539, 2002. (Pubitemid 34285204)
69. Cook T. M., Lee G, Nolan J. P., The ProSeal laryngeal mask airway: a review of the literature, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 52, 739-760, 2005. (Pubitemid 41644171)
70. Fabregat-Lopez J., Garcia-Rojo B., Cook T. M., A case series of the use of the ProSeal laryngeal mask airway in emergency lower abdominal surgery, ANAESTHESIA, 63, 967-971, 2008.
71. Lange M., Smul T., Zimmermann P., Kohlenberger R., Roewer N., Kehl F., The effectiveness and patient comfort of the novel streamlined pharynx airway liner (SLIPA) compared with the conventional laryngeal mask airway in ophthalmic surgery, ANESTH. ANALG., 104, 431-434, 2007. (Pubitemid 46146754)
72. Greenberg R. S., Brimacombe J., Berry A., Gouze V., Piantadosi S., Dake E. M., A randomized controlled trial comparing the cuffed oropharyngeal airway and the laryngeal mask airway in spontaneously breathing anesthetized adults, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 88, 970-977, 1998. (Pubitemid 28193324)
73. Hagberg C. A., Vartazarian T. N., Chelly J. E., Ovassapian A., The incidence of gastroesophageal reflux and tracheal aspiration detected with pH electrodes is similar with the laryngeal mask airway and esophageal tracheal Combitube - a pilot study, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 51, 243-249, 2004. (Pubitemid 39010953)
74. Heuer J. F., Stiller M., Rathgeber J., Eich C., Züchner K., Bauer M., Timmermann A., Evaluation of the new supraglottic airway devices Ambu AuraOnce and Intersurgical i-gel. Positioning, sealing, patient comfort and airway morbidity, ANAESTHESIST, 58, 813-820, 2009.
75. Brimacombe J. R., Berry A., The incidence of aspiration associated with the laryngeal mask airway: a meta-analysis of published literature, J. CLIN. ANESTH., 7, 297-305, 1995.
76. Keller C., Brimacombe J., Bittersohl J., Lirk P., von Goedecke A., Aspiration and the laryngeal mask airway: three cases and a review of the literature, BR. J. ANAESTH., 93, 579-582, 2004. (Pubitemid 39359890)
77. Asai T., Editorial II: Who is at increased risk of pulmonary aspiration?, BR. J. ANAESTH., 93, 497-500, 2004. (Pubitemid 39359877)
78. Patel S., Turner G., Aspiration and the laryngeal mask airway, BR. J. ANAESTH., 94, 546-547, 2005.
79. Brimacombe J R., Keller C., Who is at increased risk of aspiration?, BR. J. ANAESTH., 94, 251-252, 2005.
80. Canet J., Gallart L., Gomar C., Paluzie G., Vallès J., Castillo J., Sabaté S., Mazo V., Briones Z., Sanchis J., ARISCAT Group, Prediction of postoperative pulmonary complications in a population-based surgical cohort, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 113, 1338-1350, 2010.
81. von Ungern-Sternberg B. S., Boda K., Chambers N. A., Rebmann C., Johnson C., Sly P. D., Habre W., Risk assessment for respiratory complications in paediatric anaesthesia: a prospective cohort study. LANCET, 376, 773-783, 2010.
82. Yamanaka Y., Mammoto T., Kita T., Kishi Y., A study of 13 patients with gastric tube in place after esophageal resection: use of omeprazole to decrease gastric acidity and volume, J. CUN. ANESTH., 13, 370-373, 2001. (Pubitemid 32720491)
83. Jellish W. S., Kartha V., Fluder E., Slogoff S., Effect of metoclopramide on gastric fluid volumes in diabetic patients who have fasted before elective surgery. ANESTHESIOLOGY, 102, 904-909, 2005. (Pubitemid 40586529)
84. Paranjothy S., Griffiths J. D., Broughton H. K., Gyte G. M., Brown H. C., Thomas J., Interventions at caesarean section for reducing the risk of aspiration pneumonitis, COCHRANE DATABASE SYST. REV., Issue 1, CD004943, 2010.
85. Gyte G. M., Richens Y., Routine prophylactic drugs in normal labour for reducing gastric aspiration and its effects, COCHRANE DATABASE SYST. REV., Issue 3, CD005298.
86. Rasmussen L. S., Viby-Mogensen J., Rapid sequence intubation - how?, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 51, 787-788, 2007. (Pubitemid 47063020)
87. Neilipovitz D. T., Crosby E. T., No evidence for decreased incidence of aspiration after rapid sequence induction, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 54, 748-776, 2007.
88. El-Orbany M., Connolly L. A., Rapid sequence induction and intubation: current controversy, ANESTH. ANALG., 110, 1318-1325, 2010.
89. Jensen A. G., Callesen T., Hagemo J. S., Hreinsson K., Lund V., Nordmark J., Scandinavian clinical practice guidelines on general anaesthesia for emergency situations, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 54, 922-950, 2010.
90. Brock-Utne J. G., Gastroesophageal reflux and aspiration of gastric contents, ANESTH. ANALG., 94, 762, 2002.
91. Ng A., Smith G., Gastroesophageal reflux and aspiration of gastric contents, ANESTH. ANALG., 94, 762-763, 2002. (Pubitemid 34177587)
92. Lysakowski C., Suppan L., Czarnetzki C., Tassonyi E., Tramèr M. R., Impact of the intubation model on the efficacy of rocuronium during rapid sequence intubation: systematic review of randomized trials, ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 51, 848-857, 2007. (Pubitemid 47063018)
93. Brimacombe J. R., Berry A. M., Cricoid pressure, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 44, 414-425, 1997. (Pubitemid 27313855)
94. Priebe H. J., Cricoid pressure: an expert's opinion, MINERVA ANESTESIOL., 75, 710-714, 2009.
95. Weiss M., Gerber A. C., Rapid sequence induction in children - it's not a matter of time, PAEDIATR. ANAESTH., 18, 97-99, 2008.
96. Eich C., Timmermann A., Russo S. G., Cremer S., Nickut A., Strack M., Weiss M., Müller M. P., A controlled rapid-sequence induction technique for infants may reduce unsafe actions and stress, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 53, 1167-1172, 2009.
97. Søreide E., Strømskag K. E., Steen P. A., Statistical aspects in studies of preoperative fluid intake and gastric content, ACTA ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 39, 738-743, 1995.
98. American Society of Anesthesiologists Committee on Standards and Practice Parameters. Practice guidelines for preoperative fasting and the use of pharmacologic agents to reduce the risk of pulmonary aspiration: application to healthy patients undergoing elective procedures: an updated report by the American Society of Anesthesiologists Committee on Standards and Practice Parameters, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 114, 495-511, 2011.
99. Brady M., Kinn S., Stuart P., Preoperative fasting for adults to prevent peri-operative complications, COCHRANE DATABASE SYST. REV., Issue 4, CD004423, 2003.
100. Brady M., Kinn S., Ness V., O'Rourke K., Randhawa N., Stuart P., Preoperative fasting for preventing perioperative complications in children, COCHRANE DATABASE SYST. REV., Issue 4, CD005285, 2009.
101. Smith I., Kranke P., Murat I., Smith A., O'Sullivan G., Søreide E., Spies C., in't Veld B., Perioperative fasting in adults and children: guidelines from the European Society of Anaesthesiology, EUR. J. ANAESTHESIOL., 28, 556-569, 2011.
102. Godwin S. A., Caro D. A., Wolf S. J., Jagoda A. S., Charles R., Marett B. E., Moore J., Clinical policy: procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department, ANN. EMERG. MED., 45, 177-196, 2005.
103. American Academy of Pediatrics; American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry, Coté CJ., Wilson S., Work Group on Sedation, Guidelines for monitoring and management of pediatric patients during and after sedation for diagnostic and therapeutic procedures: an update, PAEDIATR. ANAESTH., 18, 9-10, 2008.
104. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Sedation and Analgesia by Non-Anesthesiologists. Practice Guidelines for Sedation and Analgesia by NonAnesthesiologists, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 96, 1004-1017, 2002.
105. Merchant R., Bosenberg C., Brown K., Chartrand D., Dain S., Dobson J., Kurrek M., LeDez K., Morgan P., Penner M., Shukla R., Guidelines to the practice of anesthesia: Revised edition 2011, CAN. J. ANAESTH., 58, 74-107, 2011.
106. American Society of Anesthesiologists Task Force on Obstetric Anesthesia Practice guidelines for obstetric anesthesia: an updated report, ANESTHESIOLOGY, 106, 843-863, 2007.
107. Association of Anaesthetists in Great Britain and Ireland AAGBI. Pre-operative assessment - the role of the anaesthetist. Available from URL : http://www.aagbi.org/sites/default/files/preoperativeass01.pdf (last accessed 30.04.2012)
108. Royal College of Nursing. Perioperative Fasting in Adults and Children - a RCN guideline for the multidisciplinary team. Available from URL: http://www.rcn.org.uk/--data/assets/pdf-file/0009/78678/002800.pdf (last accessed 30.04.2012)
109. Søreide E., Eriksson LI., Hirlekar G., Eriksson H., Henneberg S. W., Sandin R., Raeder J., (Task Force on Scandinavian Pre-operative Fasting Guidelines, Clinical Practice Committee Scandinavian Society of Anesthesiology and Intensive Care Medicine). Pre-operative fasting guidelines: an update, ACTA. ANAESTHESIOL. SCAND., 49, 1041-1047, 2005.
110. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Anästhesiologie und Intensivmedizin. Durchführung von Analgesie- und Anästhesieverfahren in der Geburtshilfe. Available from URL: http://www.dgai.de/eev/EEV-2011-S-183-190.pdf (Last accessed 30.04.2012)
111. Spies C. D., Breuer J. P., Gust R., Wichmann M., Adolph M., Senkal M., Kampa U., Weissauer W., Schleppers A., Søreide E., Martin E., Kaisers U., Falke K. J., Haas N., Kox W. J., Preoperative fasting. An update, ANAESTHESIST., 52, 1039-1045, 2003. (Pubitemid 37433540)
112. Kluger M. T., Visvanathan T., Myburgh J. A., Westhorpe R. N., Crisis management during anaesthesia: regurgitation, vomiting, and aspiration, QUAL. SAF. HEALTH CARE, 14 (3), e4, 2005.
113. Kalinowski C. P., Kirsch J. R., Strategies for prophylaxis and treatment for aspiration, BEST. PRACT. RES. CLIN. ANAESTHESIOL., 18, 719-737, 2004. (Pubitemid 39145055)
114. Fessier H. E., Brower R. G., Protocols for lung protective ventilation, CRIT. CARE. MED., 33 (3Suppl): S223-227, 2005. (Pubitemid 40365613)
115. Cortés I., Peñuelas O., Esteban A., Acute respiratory distress syndrome: evaluation and management, MINERVA. ANESTESIOL., 78, 343-357, 2012.