Southern African medicinal plants used to treat skin diseases

South African Journal of Botany

Volumn 87, Issue , 2013, Pages 175-193

  Mabona, U ^a   Van Vuuren, S F ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND   (South Africa)

Author keywords

Antimicrobial; Dermatophytes; Interactions; Medicinal plants; Skin; Toxicity; Wound healing

Indexed keywords

ANTIMICROBIAL ACTIVITY; COMMERCIALIZATION; DISEASE TREATMENT; MEDICINAL PLANT; PATHOGEN; PHYTOCHEMISTRY; SKIN DISORDER; TOXICITY;

EID: 84878249019     PISSN: 02546299     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.sajb.2013.04.002     Document Type: Review

References (173)

1. Abbasi A.M., Khan M.A., Ahmad M., Zafar M., Jahan S., Sultana S. Ethnopharmacological application of medicinal plants to cure skin diseases and in folk cosmetics among the tribal communities of North-West Frontier Province, Pakistan. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2010, 128:322-335.
2. Abubakar E.L.-M.M. The use of Psidium guajava Linn. in treating wound, skin and soft tissue infections. Scientific Research and Essay 2009, 4:605-611.
3. Adedapo A.A., Jimoh F.O., Koduru S., Masika P.J., Afolayan A.J. Evaluation of the medicinal potentials of the methanol extracts of the leaves and stems of Halleria lucida. Bioresource Technology 2008, 99:4158-4163.
4. Adefuye A.O., Samie A., Ndip R.N. In-vitro evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of extracts of Bridelia micrantha on selected bacterial pathogens. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2011, 5:5116-5122.
5. Adeniji K.O., Amusan O.O.G., Dlamini P.S., Enow-Orock E.G., Gamedze S.T., Gbile Z.O., Langa A.D., Makhubu L.P., Mahunnah R.L.A., Mshana R.N., Sofowora A., Vilane M.J. Traditional medicine and pharmacopoeia contribution to ethnobotanical and florist studies in Swaziland 1998, Organisation of African Unity/ Scientific, Technical and Research Commission, Lagos, ISBN:978-2453-66-3.
6. Ahmed A.S., Elgorashi E.E., Moodley N., McGaw L.J., Naidoo V., Eloff J.N. The antimicrobial, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory activity and cytotoxicity of different fractions of four South African Bauhinia species used traditionally to treat diarrhoea. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2012, 143:826-839.
7. Aliero A.A., Afolayan A.J. Antimicrobial activity of Solanum tomentosum. African Journal of Biotechnology 2006, 5:369-372.
8. Ali-Shtayeh M.S., Ghdeib S.I.A. Antifungal activity of plant extracts against dermatophytes. Mycoses 1999, 42:665-672.
9. Alviano D.S., Alviano C.S. Plant extracts: search for new alternatives to treat microbial diseases. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology 2009, 10:106-121.
10. Amabeoku G.J., Leng M.J., Syce J.A. Antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities of Viscum capense. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1998, 61:237-241.
11. Aremu A.O. Pharmacology and Phytochemistry of South African Plants used as Anthelmintics 2009, (MSc thesis), University of KwaZulu-Natal.
12. Arnold H.J., Gulumian M. Pharmacopeia of traditional medicine in Venda. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1984, 12:35-74.
13. Ashafa A.O.T., Afolayan A.J. Assessment of the antimicrobial activity of the root extracts from Chrysocoma ciliata L. African Journal of Microbiology Research 2009, 3:700-703.
14. Ayepola O.O., Adeniyi B.A. The antibacterial activity of leaf extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae). Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2008, 4:1410-1413.
15. Ayyanar M., Ignacimuthu S. Ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants commonly used by Kani tribals in Tirunelveli hills of Western Ghats, India. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2011, 134:851-864.
16. Babajide O.J., Mabusela W.T., Green I.R., Ameer F., Weitz F., Iwuoha E.I. Phytochemical screening and biological activity studies of five South African indigenous medicinal plants. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2010, 2:1924-1932.
17. Babayi H., Kolo I., Okogun J.I., Ijah U.J.J. The antimicrobial activities of methanolic extracts of Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Terminalia catappa against some pathogenic microorganisms. Biokemistri 2004, 16:106-111.
18. Balakrishnan K.P., Narayanaswamy N., Subba P., Poornima E.H. Antibacterial activity of certain medicinal plants against acne-inducing bacteria. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biological Sciences 2011, 2:476-481.
19. Bannister B.A., Begg N.T., Gillepsie S.H. Infectious Diseases 2000, Blackwell Science, Oxford, United Kingdom. 2nd ed.
20. Batten A., Bokelmann A. Wild flowers of the Eastern Cape 1966, Books of Africa, Cape Town.
21. Beatriz P.M., Ezequiel V.V., Azucena O.C., Pilar C.R. Antifungal activity of Psidium guajava organic extracts against dermatophytic fungi. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2012, 6:5435-5438.
22. Beneke E.S., Rippon J.W., Rogers A.L. Human Mycoses 1984, The Upjohn Company, United States. 8th ed.
23. Bhadauria S., Kumar P. In vitro antimycotic activity of some medicinal plants against human pathogenic dermatophytes. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences 2011, 1:1-10.
24. Bhat R.B., Jacobs T.V. Traditional herbal medicine in Transkei. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1995, 48:7-12.
25. Boily Y., Van Puyvelde L. Screening of medicinal plants of Rwanda (Central Africa) for antimicrobial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1986, 16:1-13.
26. Boiteau P., Buzas A., Lederer E., Polonsky J. Derivatives of Centella used against leprosy, chemical constitution of asiaticoside. Nature 1949, 163:258-259.
27. Braithwaite M., Van Vuuren S.F., Viljoen A.M. Validation of smoke inhalation therapy to treat microbial infections. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:501-506.
28. Bruce W.G.G. Medicinal properties in the Aloe. Excelsa 1975, 5:57-68.
29. Bruneton J. Pharmacognosy, Phytochemistry, Medicinal Plants 1995, Intercept, Hampshire.
30. Bryant A.T. Zulu Medicine and Medicine-Men 1996, C. Struik, Cape Town.
31. Buwa L.V., Van Staden J. Antibacterial and antifungal activity of traditional medicinal plants used against venereal diseases in South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2006, 103:139-142.
32. Chitemerere T.A., Mukanganyama S. In vitro antibacterial activity of selected medicinal plants from Zimbabwe. The African Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 2011, 5:1-7.
33. Chomnawang M.T., Surassmo S., Nukoolkarn V.S., Gritsanapan W. Antimicrobial effects of Thai medicinal plants against acne-inducing bacteria. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 101:330-333.
34. Coates Palgrave K. Trees of Southern Africa 1977, Struik, Cape Town, South Africa.
35. Dabai Y.U., Kawo A.H., Aliyu R.M. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity of the leaf and root extracts of Senna italica. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 2012, 6:914-918.
36. Dahanukar S.A., Kulkarni R.A., Rege N.N. Pharmacology of medicinal plants and natural products. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 2000, 32:81-118.
37. Dangoggo S.M., Hassan L.G., Sadiq I.S., Manga S.B. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial screening of leaves of Diospyros mespiliformis and Ziziphus spina-Christi. Journal of Chemical Engineering 2012, 1:31-37.
38. Dash B.K., Faruquee H.M., Biswas S.K., Alam M.K., Sisir S.M., Prodhan U.K. Antibacterial and antifungal activities of several extracts of Centella asiatica L. against some human pathogenic microbes. Life Sciences and Medicine Research 2011, 35:1-5.
39. Deepan T., Alekhya V., Saravanakumar P., Dhanaraju M.D. Phytochemical and anti-microbial studies on the leaves extracts of Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Advances in Biological Research 2012, 6:14-18.
40. Dikshit A., Husain A. Antifungal action of some essential oils against animal pathogens. Fitoterapia 1984, 55:171-176.
41. Eisa M.M., Almagboul A.Z., Omer M.E.A., Elegami A.A. Antibacterial activity of Dichrostachys cinerea. Fitoterapia 2000, 71:324-327.
42. Fabry W., Okemo P.O., Ansorg R. Antibacterial activity of East African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1998, 60:79-84.
43. Felhaber T. South African Traditional Healers' Primary Health Care Handbook 1997, Kagiso Publishers, Cape Town, South Africa.
44. Fennell C.W., Lindsey K.L., McGaw L.J., Sparg S.G., Stafford G.I., Elgorashi E.E., Grace O.M., Van Staden J. Assessing African medicinal plants for efficacy and safety: pharmacological screening and toxicology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2004, 94:205-217.
45. Fowler J.F. Current problems in dermatology. Occupational Dermatology 1998, 10:213-244.
46. Frum Y. In vitro 5-lipoxgynase and anti-oxidant activities of South African medicinal plants commonly used topically for skin diseases 2006, (MSc Thesis), University of the Witwatersrand.
47. Gelfand M., Mavi S., Drummond R.B., Ndemera B. The Traditional Medical Practitioner in Zimbabwe 1895, Mambo Press, Gweru, Zimbabwe.
48. George J., Laing M.D., Drewes S.E. Phytochemical research in South Africa. South African Journal of Science 2001, 97:93-105.
49. Germanò M.P., Angelo V.D., Sanogo R., Catania R., Alma R., De Pasquale G.B. Hepatoprotective and antibacterial effects of extracts from Trichilia emetica Vahl. (Meliaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 96:227-232.
50. Gerstner J. A preliminary checklist of Zulu names of plants with short notes. Bantu Studies 1938, 12:321-342.
51. Geyid A., Abebe D., Debella A., Makonnen Z., Aberra F., Teka F., Kebede T., Urga K., Yersaw K., Biza T., Mariam B.H., Guta M. Screening of some medicinal plants of Ethiopia for their anti-microbial properties and chemical profiles. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 97:421-427.
52. Ghuman S., Coopoosamy R.M. Crude sample preparation, extraction and in vitro screening for antimicrobial activity of selected wound healing medicinal plants in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: a review. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2011, 5:3572-3576.
53. Gibbon J.C. South African Medicines Formulary 2008, South African Medical Health and Medical Publishing Group, Cape Town. 8th ed.
54. Girish H.V., Sudarshana M.S., Rati Rao E. In vitro evaluation of the efficacy of leaf and its callus extracts of Cardiospermum halicacabum L. on important human pathogenic bacteria. Advances in Biological Research 2008, 2:34-38.
55. Goswami J.P., Sharma S., Gupta G.D., Mustafa A., Chaudhary D. Topical preparations are used for the localized effects at the site of their application by virtue of drug penetration into the underlying layers of skin or mucous membranes Available at:, (Accessed on: 11/01/2013). http://www.pharmainfo.net/reviews/topical-drug-delivery-systems-review.
56. Govindasamy C., Srinivasan R. In vitro antibacterial activity and phytochemical analysis of Catharanthus roseus (Linn.) G. Don. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine 2012, S155-S158.
57. Grierson D.S., Afolayan A.J. Antibacterial activity of some indigenous plants used for the treatment of wounds in the Eastern Cape. South African Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1999, 66:103-106.
58. Grieve M. A Modern Herbal 1967, Hafner, London.
59. Gulluce M., Sahin F., Sokmen M., Ozer H., Daferera D., Sokmen A., Polissiou M., Adiguzel A., Ozkan H. Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of the essential oils and methanol extract from Mentha longifolia L. ssp. longifolia. Food Chemistry 2007, 103:1449-1456.
60. Gutiérrez R.M.P., Mitchell S., Solis R.V. Psidium guajava: a review of its traditional uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 117:1-27.
61. Hamza O.J., den Bout-Van Van, den Beukel C.J., Matee M.I., Moshi M.J., Mikx F.H., Selemani H.O., Mbwambo Z.H., Van der Ven A.J., Verweij P.E. Antifungal activity of some Tanzanian plants used traditionally for the treatment of fungal infections. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2006, 108:124-132.
62. Hartshorne S.T. Dermatological disorders in Johannesburg, South Africa. Clinical and Experimental Dermatology 2003, 28:661-665.
63. (Accessed on: 11/01/2013). http://www.africanextracts.com/.
64. (Accessed on: 11/01/2013). http://www.elixirskincare.com/.
65. Hutchings A. Zulu Medicinal Plants 1996, University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg.
66. Hutchings A., Johnson C.T. Glimpses of a Xhosa herbalist. Veld and Flora 1986, 72:59-62.
67. Jagtap N.S., Khadabadi S.S., Ghorpade D.S., Banarase N.B., Naphade S.S. Antimicrobial and antifungal activity of Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Umbeliferae. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology 2009, 2:328-330.
68. Jenkins M.D. Madagascar on Environmental Profile 1987, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.
69. Jia Y., Zhao G., Jia J. The effects of Aloe ferox Miller and Aloe arborescens Miller on wound healing. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 120:181-189.
70. Jimoh F.O., Adedapo A.A., Afolayan A.J. Comparison of the nutritive value, antioxidant and antibacterial activities of Sonchus asper and Sonchus oleraceus. Records of National Products 2011, 5:29-42.
71. Joubert E., Gelderblom W.C.A., Louw A., De Beer D. South African herbal teas: Aspalathus linearis, Cyclopia spp. and Athrixia phylicoides. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:376-412.
72. Kamatou G.P.P., Viljoen A.M., Van Vuuren S.F. In vitro evidence of antimicrobial synergy between Salvia chamelaeagne and Leonotis leonurus. South African Journal of Botany 2006, 72:634-636.
73. Kashikar N.D., George I. Antibacterial activity of Cissus quadrangularis Linn. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 2006, 68:245-247.
74. Kelmanson J.E., Jäger A.K., Van Staden J. Zulu medicinal plants with antibacterial activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2000, 69:241-246.
75. Khan M.R., Kihara M., Omoloso A.D. Antimicrobial activity of Horsfieldia helwigii and Melia azedarach. Fitoterapia 2001, 72:423-427.
76. Kim S.S., Hyun C.G., Kim J.Y., Lee J., Park D. Antibacterial effects of medicinal plants from Jeju Island against acne-inducing bacteria. Journal of Applied Biological Chemistry 2007, 50:101-103.
77. Kim S.S., Baik J.S., Oh T.H., Yoon W.J., Lee N.H., Hyun C.G. Biological activities of Korean Citrus obovoides and Citrus natsudaidai essential oils against acne-inducing bacteria. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry 2008, 72:2507-2513.
78. Komane B.M., Olivier E.I., Viljoen A.M. Trichilia emetica (Meliaceae)-a review of traditional uses, biological activities and phytochemistry. Phytochemistry Letters 2011, 4:1-9.
79. Kumara Swamy H.M., Krishna V., Shankarmurthy K., Abdul Rahiman B., Mankani K.L., Mahadevan K.M., Harish B.G., Raja Naika H. Wound healing activity of embelin isolated from the ethanol extract of leaves of Embelia ribes Burm. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2007, 109:529-534.
80. Lagnika L., Amoussa M., Adjovi A., Sanni A. Antifungal, antibacterial and antioxidant properties of Adansonia digitata and Vitex doniana from Bénin pharmacopeia. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy 2012, 4:44-52.
81. Laidler P.W. The magic medicine of the Hottentots, South Africa. Journal of Science 1928, 25:433-447.
82. Laube S. Skin infections and ageing. Ageing Research Reviews 2004, 3:69-89.
83. Lourens A.C.U., Reddy D., Bas K.H.C., Viljoen A.M., Van Vuuren S.F. In vitro biological activity and essential oil composition of four indigenous South African Helichrysum species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2004, 95:253-258.
84. Lourens A.C.U., Viljoen A.M., Van Heerden F.R. South African Helichrysum species: a review of the traditional uses, biological activity and phytochemistry. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:630-652.
85. Louw C.A.M., Regnier T.J.C., Korsten L. Medicinal bulbous plants of South Africa and their traditional relevance in the control of infectious diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2002, 82:147-154.
86. Luseba D., Elgorashi E.E., Ntloedibe D.T., Van Staden J. Antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and mutagenic effects of some medicinal plants used in South Africa for the treatment of wounds and retained placenta in livestock. South African Journal of Botany 2007, 73:378-383.
87. Mabogo D.E.N. Ethnobotany of the Vhavenda 1990, (MSc thesis), University of Pretoria.
88. Magee A.R., Van Wyk B.E., Van Vuuren S.F. Ethnobotany and antimicrobial activity of sieketroos (Arctopus species). South African Journal of Botany 2007, 73:159-162.
89. Magin P., Adams J., Heading G., Pond D., Smith W. Psychological sequelae of acne vulgaris. Canadian Family Physician 2006, 52:978-979.
90. Malik F., Hussain S., Mirza T., Hameed A., Ahmad S., Riaz H., Shah P.A., Usmanghani K. Screening for antimicrobial activity of thirty-three medicinal plants used in the traditional system of medicine in Pakistan. Journal of Medicinal Plants Research 2011, 5:3052-3060.
91. Mapunya M.B., Nikolova R.V., Lall N. Melanogenesis and antityrosinase activity of selected South African plants. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2012, 1-6.
92. Marnewick J., Joubert E., Joseph S., Swanevelder S., Swart P., Gelderblom W. Inhibition of tumour promotion in mouse skin by extracts of rooibos (Aspalathus linearis) and honeybush (Cyclopia intermedia), unique South African herbal teas. Cancer Letters 2005, 224:193-202.
93. Masoko P., Picard J., Eloff J.N. Antifungal activities of six South African Terminalia species (Combretaceae). Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 99:301-308.
94. Masoko P., Picard J., Eloff J.N. The antifungal activity of twenty-four southern African Combretum species (Combretaceae). South African Journal of Botany 2007, 73:173-183.
95. Mathabe M.C., Nikolova R.V., Lall N., Nyazema N.Z. Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used for the treatment of diarrhoea in Limpopo Province, South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2006, 105:286-293.
96. McGaw L.J., Jäger A.K., Van Staden J. Antibacterial, anthelmintic and anti-amoebic activity in South African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2000, 72:247-263.
97. McGaw L.J., Lall N., Meyer J.J.M., Eloff J.N. The potential of South African plants against Mycobacterium infections. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:482-500.
98. Mishra G., Srivastava S., Nagori B.P. Extraction and evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Cissus quadrangularis Linneaus. Biological Forum - An International Journal 2009, 1:103-108.
99. Momtaz S., Mapunya B.M., Houghton P.J., Edgerly C., Hussein A., Naidoo S., Lall N. Tyrosinase inhibition by extracts and constituents of Sideroxylon inerme L. stem bark, used in South Africa for skin lightening. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:507-512.
100. Moolla A. A Phytochemical and Pharmacological Investigation of Indigenous Agathosma Species 2005, (MPharm Thesis), University of the Witwatersrand.
101. Moolla A., Viljoen A.M. 'Buchu'-Agathosma betulina and Agathosma crenulata (Rutaceae): a review. Journal of Ethnopharmacolog 2008, 119:413-419.
102. More G., Tshikalange T.E., Lall N., Botha F., Meyer J.J.M. Antimicrobial activity of medicinal plants against oral microorganisms. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:473-477.
103. Moshi M.J., Mbwambo Z.H. Some pharmacological properties of extracts of Terminalia sericea roots. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 97:43-47.
104. Motsei M.L., Lindsey K.L., Van Staden J., Jäger A.K. Screening of traditionally used South African plants for antifungal activity against Candida albicans. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2003, 86:235-241.
105. Murthy L.K.N.C., Vanitha A., Swamy M.M., Ravishankar G.A. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of Cissus quadrangularis. Journal of Medicinal Food 2003, 6:99-105.
106. Musa D.A., Nwodo F.O.C., Ojogbane E. Phytochemical, antibacterial and toxicity studies of the aqueous extract of Euclayptus camaldulensis Dehnh. Asian Journal of Plant Science and Research 2011, 1:1-10.
107. Mutai C., Bii C., Vagias C., Abatis D., Roussis V. Antimicrobial activity of Acacia mellifera extracts and lupane triterpenes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2009, 123:143-148.
108. Naidoo K.K., Coopoosamy R.M. A comparative analysis of two medicinal plants used to treat common skin conditions in South Africa. African Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 2011, 5:393-397.
109. Ncube B., Finnie J.F., Van Staden J. In vitro antimicrobial synergism within plant extract combinations from three South African medicinal bulbs. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2012, 139:81-89.
110. Ngwenya M.A., Koopman A., Williams R. Zulu Botanical Knowledge: An Introduction 2003, National Botanical Institute, Durban.
111. Nielsen T.R.H., Kuete V., Jäger A.K., Meyer J.J.M., Lall N. Antimicrobial activity of selected South African medicinal plants. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine 2012, 12:1-6.
112. Njoroge G.N., Bussmann R.W. Ethnotherapeautic management of skin diseases among the Kikuyus of Central Kenya. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2007, 111:303-307.
113. Olajuyigbe O.O., Babalola A.E., Afolayan A.J. Antibacterial and phytochemical screening of crude ethanolic extracts of Waltheria indica Linn. African Journal of Microbiology Research 2011, 5:3760-3764.
114. Öztürk S., Ercisli S. The chemical composition of essential oil and in vitro antibacterial activities of essential oil and methanol extract of Ziziphora persica Bunge. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2006, 106:372-376.
115. Padayachee K. The Phytochemistry and Biological Activities of Athrixia phylicoides 2011, (MSc Thesis), University of the Witwatersrand.
116. Palmer E., Pitman N. Trees of Southern Africa 1972, vol. 3. Balkema, Cape Town.
117. Pather N., Viljoen A.M., Kramer B. A biochemical comparison of the in vivo effects of Bulbine frutescens and Bulbine natalensis on cutaneous wound healing. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2011, 133:364-370.
118. Perumal Samy R.P., Ignacimuthu S., Sen A. Screening of 34 Indian medicinal plants for antibacterial properties. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1998, 62:173-182.
119. Pillay C.C.N., Jäger A.K., Mulholland D.A., Van Staden J. Cyclooxygenase inhibiting and anti-bacterial activities of South African Erythrina species. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2001, 74:231-237.
120. Pooley E. The Complete Field Guide to Trees of Natal. Zululand and Transkei 1993, Natal Flora Publications Trust, Natal Herbarium, Durban.
121. Priya K.S., Gnanamani A., Radhakrishnan N., Babu M. Healing potential of Datura alba on burn wounds in albino rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2002, 83:193-199.
122. Pujol J. Nature Africa, The Herbalist Handbook 1990, Jean Pujol Natural Healers' Foundation, Durban.
123. Rabe T., Van Staden J. Antibacterial activity of South African plants used for medicinal purposes. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1997, 56:81-87.
124. Ram A.J., Bhakshu L.M., Raju R.R.V. In vitro antimicrobial activity of certain medicinal plants from Eastern Ghats, India, used for skin diseases. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2004, 90:353-357.
125. Reuter J., Merfort I., Schempp C.M. Botanicals in dermatology, and evidence-based review. American Journal of Clinical Dermatology 2010, 11:247-267.
126. Roberts M. Indigenous Healing Plants 1990, Southern Book Publishers, Halfway House, South Africa.
127. Rood B. Uit die Veldapteek 1994, Tafelberg, Cape Town.
128. Saadabi A.M.A., Moglad E.H. Experimental evaluation of certain Sudanese plants used in folkloric medicine for their antibacterial activity (in-vitro tests). Journal of Applied Sciences Research 2011, 7:253-256.
129. Saddiqe Z., Naeem I., Maimoona A. A review of the antibacterial activity of Hypericum perforatum L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2010, 131:511-521.
130. Samie A., Obi C.L., Bessong P.O., Lall N. Activity profiles of fourteen selected medicinal plants from Rural Venda communities in South Africa against fifteen clinical bacterial species. African Journal of Biotechnology 2005, 4:1443-1451.
131. Shagal M.H., Kubmarawa D., Alim H. Preliminary phytochemical investigation and antimicrobial evaluation of roots, stem-bark and leaves extracts of Diospyros mespiliformis. International Research Journal of Biochemistry and Bioinformatics 2012, 2:11-15.
132. Sen A., Batra A. Evaluation of antimicrobial activity of different solvent extracts of medicinal plant: Melia azedarach L. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Research 2012, 4:67-73.
133. Shahi S.K., Shukla A.C., Bajaj A.K., Banerjee U., Rimek D., Midgely G., Dikshit A. Broad spectrum herbal therapy against superficial fungal infections. Skin Pharmacology and Applied Skin Physiology 2000, 13:60-64.
134. Shai L.J., McGaw L.J., Masoko P., Eloff J.N. Antifungal and antibacterial activity of seven traditionally used South African plant species active against Candida albicans. South African Journal of Botany 2008, 74:677-684.
135. Shale T.L., Stirk W.A., Van Staden J. Screening of medicinal plants used in Lesotho for anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 1999, 67:347-354.
136. Smith A. A Contribution to The South Africa Material Medica 1895, Lovedale, South Africa. 3rd ed.
137. Smith C.A. Common Names of South African plants. Memoirs of the Botanical Survey of South Africa 1996, Department of Agricultural Technical Services, Pretoria. 35th ed.
138. Srividya A.R., Sumithra G.S. Antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic property of Melianthus major leaves. Journal of Global Pharma Technology 2010, 2:94-97.
139. Steenkamp V., Gouws M.C. Cytotoxicity of six South African medicinal plant extracts used in the treatment of cancer. South African Journal of Botany 2006, 72:630-633.
140. Steenkamp V., Mathivha E., Gouws M.C., Van Rensburg C.E.J. Studies on antibacterial, antioxidant and fibroblast growth stimulation of wound healing remedies from South Africa. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2004, 9:353-357.
141. Steenkamp V., Fernandes A.C., Van Rensburg C.E.J. Screening of Venda medicinal plants for antifungal activity against Candida albicans. South African Journal of Botany 2007, 73:256-258.
142. Street R.A., Stirk W.A., Van Staden J. South African traditional medicinal plant trade-challenges in regulating quality, safety and efficacy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:705-710.
143. Sule W.F., Okonko T.A., Joseph T.A., Ojezele M.O., Nwanze J.C., Alii J.A., Adewale O.G., Ojezele O.J. In vitro antifungal activity of Senna alata Linn. crude extract. Research Journal of Biological Sciences 2010, 5:275-284.
144. Suliman S., Van Vuuren S.F., Viljoen A.M. Validating the in vitro antimicrobial activity of Artemisia afra in polyherbal combinations to treat respiratory infections. South African Journal of Botany 2010, 76:655-661.
145. Szabó I., Pallag A., Blidar C.F. The antimicrobial activity of the Cnicus benedictus L. extracts. Analele Universitatii din Oradea, Fascicula Biologie 2009, XV1:126-128.
146. Tadeg H. Phytopharmaceutical Studies of Some Selected Medicinal Plants Locally used in the Treatment of Skin Disorders 2004, (MSc Thesis), Addis Ababa University.
147. Tadeg H., Mohammed E., Asres K., Gebre-Mariam T. Antimicrobial activities of some selected traditional Ethiopian medicinal plants used in the treatment of skin disorders. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2005, 100:168-175.
148. Takahashi T., Kokubo R., Sakaino M. Antimicrobial activities of Eucalyptus leaf extracts and flavonoids from Eucalyptus maculate. Letters in Applied Microbiology 2004, 39:60-64.
149. Teffo L.S., Aderogba M.A., Eloff J.N. Antibacterial and antioxidant activities of four kaempferol methyl ethers isolated from Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. var. angustifolia leaf extracts. South African Journal of Botany 2010, 76:25-29.
150. Thring T.S.A., Springfield E.P., Weitz F.M. Antimicrobial activities of four plant species from the Southern Overberg region of South Africa. African Journal of Biotechnology 2007, 6:1779-1784.
151. Tomson N., Sterling J.C. Infections and infestations of the skin in children. Paediatrics and Child Health 2007, 17:400-406.
152. Tsai T.H., Tsai T.H., Wu W.H., Tseng J.T.-P., Tsai P.J. In vitro antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects of herbs against Propionibacterium acnes. Food Chemistry 2010, 119:964-968.
153. Ullah M.O., Sultana S., Haque A., Tasmin S. Antimicrobial, cytotoxic and antioxidant activity of Centella asiatica. European Journal of Scientific Research 2009, 30:260-264.
154. Van der Watt E., Pretorius J.C. Purification and identification of active antibacterial components in Carpobrotus edulis L. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2001, 76:87-91.
155. Van Hees C., Naafs B. Common Skin Diseases in Africa. An illustrated Guide 2001.
156. Van Vuuren S.F. Antimicrobial activity of South African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:462-472.
157. Van Vuuren S.F., Viljoen A.M. Plant-based antimicrobial studies-methods and approaches to study the interaction between natural products. Planta Medica 2011, 77:1168-1182.
158. Van Wyk B.E. A broad review of commercially important southern African medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:342-355.
159. Van Wyk B.E. A review of Khoi-San and Cape Dutch medical ethnobotany. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:331-341.
160. Van Wyk B.E., Van Oudtshoorn B., Gericke N. Medicinal Plants of Southern Africa 2000, Briza, South Africa. 2nd ed.
161. Van Wyk B.E., Van Oudtshoorn B., Gericke N. Medicinal Plants of South Africa 2009, Briza, South Africa.
162. Van Wyk B., Van Wyk P., Van Wyk B.E. Photo Guide to Trees of Southern Africa 2011, Briza, South Africa.
163. Vermaak I., Kamatou G.P.P., Komane-Mofokeng B., Viljoen A.M., Beckett K. African seed oils of commercial importance-cosmetic applications. South African Journal of Botany 2011, 77:920-933.
164. Verschaeve L., Van Staden J. Mutagenic and antimutagenic properties of extracts from South African traditional medicinal plants. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 119:575-587.
165. Viji M., Murugesan S. Phytochemical analysis and antibacterial activity of medicinal plant Cardiospermum halicacabum linn. Journal of Phytology 2010, 2:68-77.
166. Viljoen A.M., Van Vuuren S., Ernst E., Klepser M., Demirci B., Baser H., Van Wyk B.E. Osmitopsis asteriscoides (Asteraceae) the antimicrobial activity and essential oil composition of a Cape-Dutch remedy. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2003, 88:137-143.
167. Von Koenen E. Heil-Gift-und, Essbare, P. flanzen in Nambia 1996, Klauss Hees Verlag, Göttingen.
168. Watt J.M., Breyer-Brandwijk M.G. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa 1962, Livingstone, London. 2nd ed.
169. Webster D., Taschereau P., Belland R.J., Sand C., Rennie R.P. Antifungal activity of medicinal plant extracts preliminary screening studies. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2008, 115:140-146.
170. Weckesser S., Engel K., Simon-Haarhaus B., Wittmer A., Pelz K., Schempp C.M. Screening of plant extracts for antimicrobial activity against bacteria and yeast with dermatological relevance. Phytochemistry 2007, 14:508-516.
171. Weideman L. An investigation into the antibacterial activities of medicinal plants traditionally used in the Eastern Cape to treat secondary skin infections associated with burn wounds 2005, (MTech Thesis), Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University.
172. World Health Organisation (WHO) The world medicines situation traditional medicines: global situation, issues and challenges Geneva. Available at:, (Accessed on: 11/01/2013). http://www.who.int/medicines/areas/policy/world_medicines_situation/WMS_ch18_wTraditionalMed.pdf.
173. Yff B.T.S., Lindsey K.L., Taylor M.B., Erasmus D.G., Jäger A.K. The pharmacological screening of Pentanisia prunelloides and the isolation of the antibacterial compound palmitic acid. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 2002, 79:101-107.