PAH air pollution at a Portuguese urban area: Carcinogenic risks and sources identification

Environmental Science and Pollution Research

Volumn 20, Issue 6, 2013, Pages 3932-3945

  Slezakova, K ^a,b   Pires, J C M ^a   Castro, D ^a,b   Alvim Ferraz, M C M ^a   Delerue Matos, C ^b   Morais, S ^b   Pereira, M C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PORTO   (Portugal)

^b INSTITUTO SUPERIOR DE ENGENHARIA DO PORTO   (Portugal)

Author keywords

Cluster analysis (CA); Health risks; Linear regression models; Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs); Principal component analysis (PCA); Traffic emissions

Indexed keywords

CARCINOGEN; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON; SULFUR DIOXIDE;

AIR QUALITY; ATMOSPHERIC MODELING; ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION; CANCER; CARBON MONOXIDE; CARCINOGEN; CLUSTER ANALYSIS; CONCENTRATION (COMPOSITION); DOMESTIC WORK; FILTER; HEALTH RISK; INDUSTRIAL EMISSION; NITROGEN DIOXIDE; OZONE; PAH; PARTICULATE MATTER; POLLUTANT SOURCE; POLYMER; PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS; PUBLIC HEALTH; REGRESSION ANALYSIS; RELATIVE HUMIDITY; SOLAR RADIATION; SULFATE; TRAFFIC EMISSION; URBAN POLLUTION; WIND VELOCITY;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AIR POLLUTANT; AIR POLLUTION; ARTICLE; CARCINOGEN TESTING; CHILD; CITY; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; HUMAN; INFANT; METHODOLOGY; MIDDLE AGED; PORTUGAL; PRESCHOOL CHILD; PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; AGED; AIR POLLUTANTS; AIR POLLUTION; CARCINOGENICITY TESTS; CARCINOGENS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CITIES; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; HUMANS; INFANT; MIDDLE AGED; POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS, AROMATIC; PORTUGAL; PRINCIPAL COMPONENT ANALYSIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTORS; SULFUR DIOXIDE; YOUNG ADULT;

PORTO [PORTO (DST)]; PORTO [PORTUGAL]; PORTUGAL;

EID: 84878115205     PISSN: 09441344     EISSN: 16147499     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1007/s11356-012-1300-7     Document Type: Article

References (90)

1. Albinet A, Leoz-Garziandia E, Budzinski H, Viilenave E (2007) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), nitrated PAHs and oxygenated PAHs in ambient air of the Marseilles area (South of France): concentrations and sources. Sci Total Environ 384: 280-292.
2. Andrade S, Cristale J, Silva FS, Zocolo GJ, Marchi MRR (2010) Contribution of sugar-cane harvesting season to atmospheric contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in Araraquara city, Southeast Brazil. Atmos Environ 44: 2913-2919.
3. Andreou G, Rapsomanikis S (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and their oxygenated derivatives in the urban atmosphere of Athens. J Hazard Mater 172: 363-373.
4. Bernalte E, Sánchez CM, Gil EP, Balic FC, Cortez VV (2012) An exploratory study of particulate PAHs in low-polluted urban and rural areas of southwest Spain: concentrations, source assignment, seasonal variation and correlations with other air pollutants. Water Air Soil Pollut 223: 5143-5154.
5. Boström CE, Gerde P, Hanberg A, Jernstrom B, Johansson C, Kyrklund T, Rannug A, Tornqvist M, Victorin K, Westerholm R (2002) Cancer risk assessments, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air. Environ Health Perspect 110: 451-488.
6. Brunekreef B, Beelen R, Hoek G, Schouten L, Bausch-Goldbohm S, Fischer P, Armstrong B, Hughes E, Jerrett M, van den Brandt P (2009) Effects of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: the NLCS-AIR study. Res Rep Health Eff Inst 139: 5-71, discussion 73-89.
7. Brunekreef B, Holgate ST (2002) Air pollution and health. Lancet 360: 1233-1242.
8. Callén MS, de la Cruz MT, López JM, Murillo R, Navarro MV, Mastral AM (2008) Some inferences on the mechanism of atmospheric gas/particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) at Zaragoza (Spain). Chemosphere 73: 1357-1365.
9. Caricchia AM, Chiavarini S, Pezza M (1999) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmospheric particulate matter in the city of Naples (Italy). Atmos Environ 33: 3731-3738.
10. Castellano AV, Cancio JL, Alemán SP, Rodri{dotless}guez S (2003) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air particles in the city of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria. Environmen Int 29: 475-480.
11. Castro D, Slezakova K, Delerue-Matos C, Alvim-Ferraz MC, Morais S, Pereira MC (2011) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in gas and particulate phases of indoor environments influenced by tobacco smoke: levels, phase distributions, and health risks. Atmos Environ 45: 1799-1808.
12. Castro D, Slezakova K, Oliva-Teles MT, Delerue-Matos C, Alvim-Ferraz MC, Morais S, Pereira MC (2009) Analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in atmospheric particulate samples by microwave-assisted extraction and liquid chromatography. J Sep Sci 32: 501-510.
13. Chaloulakou A, Kassomenos P, Spyrellis N, Demokritou P, Koutrakis P (2003) Measurements of PM10 and PM2. 5 particle concentrations in Athens, Greece. Atmos Environ 37: 649-660.
14. Chou C, Lee C-T, Chen W-N, Chang S-Y, Chen T-K, Lin C-Y, Chen J-P (2007) Lidar observations of the diurnal variations in the depth of urban mixing layer: a case study on the air quality deterioration in Taipei, Taiwan. Sci Total Environ 374: 156-166.
15. Cooper DA (2003) Exhaust emissions from ships at berth. Atmos Environ 37: 3817-3830.
16. Delgado-Saborit JM, Stark C, Harrison RM (2011) Carcinogenic potential, levels and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon mixtures in indoor and outdoor environments and their implications for air quality standards. Environ Int 37: 383-392.
17. Directive 2004/107/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council relating to arsenic, cadmium, mercury, nickel and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in ambient air (2004) Official Journal of the European Union L23: 3-16.
18. Directive 2008/50/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on ambient air quality and cleaner air for Europe (2008) Official Journal of the European Union L151: 1-44.
19. Fang GC, Wu YS, Chen JC, Chang CN, Ho TT (2006) Characteristic of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon concentrations and source identification for fine and coarse particulates at Taichung Harbor near Taiwan Strait during 2004-2005. Sci Total Environ 366: 729-738.
20. Fernández P, Grimalt JO, Vilanova RM (2002) Atmospheric gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in high mountain regions of Europe. Environ Sci Technol 36: 1162-1168.
21. Froehner S, Maceno M, Scurupa Machado K, Grube M (2011) Health risk assessment of inhabitants exposed to PAHs particulate matter in air. J Environ Sci Health, Part A: Tox Hazard Subst Environ Eng 46: 817-823.
22. Gaga EO, Ari A (2011) Gas-particle partitioning of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in an urban traffic site in Eskisehir, Turkey. Atmos Res 99: 207-216.
23. Gaga EO, Döǧeroǧlu T, Ozden O, Ari A, Yay OD, Altuǧ H, Akyol N, Ornektekin S, van Doorn W (2012) Evaluation of air quality by passive and active sampling in an urban city in Turkey: current status and spatial analysis of air pollution exposure. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int 19: 3579-3596.
24. Galarneau E (2008) Source specificity and atmospheric processing of airborne PAHs: implications for source apportionment. Atmos Environ 42: 8139-8149.
25. Gomez MLS, Martin MCR (1987) Application of cluster analysis to identify sources of airborne particles. Atmos Environ 21: 1521-1527.
26. Guo H, Lee SC, Ho KF, Wang XM, Zou SC (2003) Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air of Hong Kong. Atmos Environ 37: 5307-5317.
27. Hassan SK, Khoder MI (2012) Gas-particle concentration, distribution, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a traffic area of Giza, Egypt. Environ Monit Assess 184: 3593-3612.
28. Haugen J-E, Wania F, Lei YD (1999) Polychlorinated biphenyls in the atmosphere of southern Norway. Environ Sci Technol 33: 2340-2345.
29. Ho KF, Lee SC, Chiu GMY (2002) Characterization of selected volatile organic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and carbonyl compounds at a roadside monitoring station. Atmos Environ 36: 57-65.
30. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2002) Some traditional herbal medicines, some mycotoxins, naphthalene and styrene. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 82: 1-556.
31. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) (2010) Some non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and some related exposures. IARC Monogr Eval Carcinog Risks Hum 92: 1-853.
32. Jia C, Batterman S (2010) A critical review of naphthalene sources and exposures relevant to indoor and outdoor air. Int J Environl Res Public Health 7: 2903-2939.
33. Kalaitzoglou M, Terzi E, Samara C (2004) Patterns and sources of particle-phase aliphatic and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban and rural sites of western Greece. Atmos Environ 38: 2545-2560.
34. Kamens RM, Guo Z, Fulcher JN, Bell D (1988) Influence of humidity, sunlight, and temperature on the daytime decay of PAH on atmospheric soot particles. Environ Sci Technol 22: 103-108.
35. Lammel G, Klánová J, Ilić P, Kohoutek J, Gasić B, Kovacić I, Lakić N, Radić R (2010) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in air on small spatial and temporal scales-I. Levels and variabilities. Atmos Environ 44: 5015-5021.
36. Lee RGM, Jones KC (1999) The influence of meteorology and air masses on daily atmospheric PCB and PAH concentrations at a UK location. Environ Sci Technol 33: 705-712.
37. Lin L, Fan Z-H, Zhu X, Huang L-H, Bonanno LJ (2011) Characterization of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a mixed-use urban community in Paterson, NJ: concentrations and sources. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 61: 631-639.
38. Liu M, Cheng SB, Ou DN, Hou LJ, Gao L, Wang LL, Xie YS, Yang Y, Xu SY (2007) Characterization, identification of road dust PAHs in central Shanghai areas, China. Atmos Environ 41: 8785-8795.
39. Lu H, Zhu L, Chen S (2008) Pollution level, phase distribution and health risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor air at public places of Hangzhou, China. Environ Pollut 152: 569-575.
40. Ma W, Qi H, Li Y, Liu L, Sun D, Wang D, Zhang Z, Tian C, Shen J (2011) Seasonal and spatial variations of air concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in northeastern Chinese urban region. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 86: 43-49.
41. Manly BFJ (1994) Multivariate statistical methods-a primer. Chapman and Hall, London.
42. McKenna JE (2003) An enhanced cluster analysis program with bootstrap significance testing for ecological community analysis. Environ Modell Softw 18: 205-220.
43. Miller JN, Miller JC (2005) Statistics and chemometrics for analytical chemistry. Pearson Education, Harlow.
44. Mohanraj R, Solaraj G, Dhanakumar S (2011) Fine particulate phase PAHs in ambient atmosphere of Chennai metropolitan city, India. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18: 764-771.
45. National Institute of Statistics (2009) Statistical yearbook of Portugal 2008. National Institute of Statistics, Lisbon.
46. Netto ADP, Barreto RP, Moreira JC, Arbilla G (2007) Spatial distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Terminalia catappa L. (Combretaceae) bark from a selected heavy road traffic area of Rio de Janeiro City, Brazil. J Hazard Mater 142: 389-396.
47. Obiri S, Cobbina SJ, Armah FA, Naangmenyele Z (2011) Quantification and characterization of vehicle-based polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dust from the Tamale metropolis, Ghana. Environ Sci Pollut Res 18: 1166-1173.
48. Okona-Mensah KW, Battershill J, Boobis A, Fielder R (2005) An approach to investigating the importance of high potency polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the induction of lung cancer by air pollution. Food Chem Toxicol 43: 1103-1116.
49. Omar NYMJ, Abas MRB, Ketuly KA, Tahir NM (2002) Concentrations of PAHs in atmospheric particles (PM10) and roadside soil particles collected in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Atmos Environ 36: 247-254.
50. Park SS, Kim YJ, Kang CH (2002) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Seoul, Korea. Atmos Environ 36: 2917-2924.
51. Pereira MC, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Santos RC (2005) Relevant aspects of air quality in Oporto Portugal: PM10 and O3. Environ Monit Assess 101: 203-221.
52. 2 in a coastal region in Portugal. J Toxicol Env Health Part A 70: 1-5.
53. Pires JCM, Martins FG, Sousa SIV, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Pereira MC (2008a) Selection and validation of parameters in multiple linear and principal component regressions. Environ Modell Softw 23: 50-55.
54. 2 and PM10. Atmos Environ 42: 1249-1260.
55. 3. Atmos Environ 42: 1261-1274.
56. Pires JCM, Martins FG, Sousa SIV, Alvim-Ferraz MCM, Pereira MC (2008d) Prediction of the daily mean PM10 concentrations using linear models. Am J Environ Sci 4: 445-453.
57. Portuguese Automobile Association (2010) Statistics of automobile sector 2010. Automobile Association of Portugal, Lisbon. Available at http://www. imtt. pt/sites/IMTT/Portugues/CentroDocumentacao/RepertorioGeral/Estatisticas/Sectorautomovel/Documents/Estatisticas_Sector_Automovel_ACAP_2010. pd.
58. Pufulete M, Battershill J, Boobis A, Fielder R (2004) Approaches to carcinogenic risk assessment for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon: a UK perspective. Regul Toxicol Pharm 40: 54-56.
59. Rajput N, Lakhani A (2009) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: sources, distribution, and health implications. In: Gurjar BR, Molina LT, Ojha CSP (eds) Air pollution: health and environmental impacts, 1st edn. CRC, Boca Raton, pp 229-248.
60. Ramírez N, Cuadras A, Rovira E, Marcé RM, Borrull F (2011) Risk assessment related to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in gas and particle phases near industrial sites. Environ Health Perspect 119: 1110-1116.
61. Ravindra K, Bencs L, Wauters E, de Hoog J, Deutsch F, Roekens E, Bleux N, Bergmans P, van Grieken R (2006) Seasonal and site specific variation in vapor and aerosol phase PAHs over Flanders (Belgium) and their relation with anthropogenic activities. Atmos Environ 40: 771-785.
62. Ravindra K, Sokhi R, van Grieken R (2008) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos Environ 42: 2895-2921.
63. Robinson AL, Subramanian R, Donahue NM, Bernardo-Bricke A, Rogge WF (2006) Source apportionment of molecular markers and organic aerosol-1. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and methodology for data visualization. Environ Sci Technol 40: 7803-7810.
64. Schauer C, Niessner R, Pöschl U (2003) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air particulate matter: decadal and seasonal trends, chemical degradation, and sampling artifacts. Environ Sci Technol 37: 2861-2868.
65. Shibamoto T (1998) Chromatographic analysis of environmental and food toxicants. Dekker, New York.
66. Silva FS, Cristale J, André PA, Saldiva PHN, Marchi MRR (2010) PM2. 5 and PM10: the influence of sugarcane burning on potential cancer risk. Atmos Environ 44: 5133-5138.
67. Slezakova K, Castro D, Delerue-Matos C, Alvim-Ferraz MC, Morais S, Pereira MC (2012) Impact of vehicular traffic emissions on particulate-bound PAHs: Levels and associated health risks. Atmos Res doi: 10. 1016/j. atmosres. 2012. 06. 009.
68. Slezakova K, Castro D, Delerue-Matos C, Alvim-Ferraz MC, Morais S, Pereira MC (2011) Air pollution from traffic emissions in Oporto, Portugal: health and environmental implications. Microchem J 99: 51-59.
69. Slezakova K, Castro D, Pereira MC, Morais S, Delerue-Matos C, Alvim-Ferraz MCM (2010) Influence of traffic emissions on the carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in outdoor breathable particles. J Air Waste Manage Assoc 60: 393-401.
70. Slezakova K, Pereira MC, Pires JCM, Martins FG, Alvim-Ferraz MCM (2008) Influence of traffic emissions on composition of atmospheric particles of different sizes-part 2: SEM-EDS characterization. J Atmos Chem 60: 221-236.
71. Tham YWF, Takeda K, Sakugawa H (2008a) Exploring the correlation of particulate PAHs, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone, a preliminary study. Water Air Soil Pollut 194: 5-12.
72. Tham YWF, Takeda K, Sakugawa H (2008b) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) associated with atmospheric particles in Higashi Hiroshima, Japan: influence of meteorological conditions and seasonal variations. Atmos Res 88: 224-233.
73. Tsapakis M, Stephanou EG (2003) Collection of gas and particle semi-volatile organic compounds: use of an oxidant denuder to minimize polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons degradation during high-volume air sampling. Atmos Environ 37: 4935-4944.
74. Tsapakis M, Stephanou EG (2005) Occurrence of gaseous and particulate polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: study of sources and ambient temperature effect on the gas/particle concentration and distribution. Environ Pollut 133: 147-156.
75. Tsapakis M, Stephanou EG (2007) Diurnal cycle of PAHs, nitro-PAHs, and oxy-PAHs in a high oxidation capacity marine background atmosphere. Environ Sci Technol 41: 8011-8017.
76. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1986) Guidelines for carcinogen risk assessment. Federal Register, 51, 185. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC. .
77. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (1989) Risk assessment guidance for superfund, vol I: human health evaluation manual. EPA/540/1-89/002, Office of Emergency and Remedial Response, Washington, DC.
78. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2008) Child-specific exposure factors handbook (final report) 2008. EPA/600/R-06/096F, National Centre for Environmental Assessment Office of Research and Development, Washington, DC.
79. United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) (2012) Risk-based concentration table. Accessed 5. 6. 2012, Available from: .
80. Vardar N, Esen F, Tasdemir Y (2008) Seasonal concentrations and partitioning of PAHs in a suburban site of Bursa, Turkey. Environ Pollut 155: 298-307.
81. Vieira C, Morais S, Ramos S, Delerue-Matos C, Oliveira MBPP (2011) Mercury, cadmium, lead and arsenic levels in three pelagic fish species from the Atlantic Ocean: intra- and inter-specific variability and human health risks for consumption. Food Chem Toxicol 49: 923-932.
82. Wang X, Cheng H, Xu X, Zhuang G, Zhao C (2008) A wintertime study of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in PM2. 5 and PM2. 5-10 in Beijing: assessment of energy structure conversion. J Hazard Materi 157: 47-56.
83. Weschler CJ (2009) Changes in indoor pollutants since the 1950s. Atmos Environ 43: 153-169.
84. World Health Organization (WHO) (1998) Environmental health criteria 202: selected non-heterocyclic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. International Program on Chemical Safety. World Health Organization, Geneva,. Available at .
85. Wu CC, Lin TS, Yang TT, Hsu HW, Chang CL, Huang CH, Lin WY (2012) Seasonal variation and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Miaoli city, Taiwan. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 88: 433-437.
86. Yang HH, Lee WJ, Chen SJ, Lai SO (1998) PAH emission from various industrial stacks. J Hazard Mater 60: 159-74.
87. Zechmeister HG, Dullinger S, Hohenwallner D, Riss A, Hanus-Illnar A, Scharf S (2006) Pilot study on road traffic emissions (PAHs, heavy metals) measured by using mosses in a tunnel experiment in Vienna, Austria. Environ Sci Pollut Res 13: 398-405.
88. Zhang S, Zhang W, Wang K, Shen Y, Hu L, Wang X (2009) Concentration, distribution and source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the southeast suburb of Beijing, China. Environ Monit Assess 151: 197-207.
89. Zhao J, Zhang F, Xu L, Chen J, Xu Y (2011) Spatial and temporal distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the atmosphere of Xiamen, China. Sci Total Environ 409: 5318-5327.
90. Zheng M, Fang M (2000) Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere of Hong Kong. Water, Air Pollut 117: 175-189.