Self-defense and the suspicion heuristic

Iowa Law Review

Volumn 98, Issue 1, 2012, Pages 293-336

  Richardson, L Song ^a   Goff, Phillip Atiba ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA COLLEGE OF LAW   (United States)

^b STANFORD UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 84877705792     PISSN: 00210552     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (138)

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3. Jane Fritsch, The Diallo Verdict: The Overview; 4 Officers in Diallo Shooting Are Acquitted of All Charges, N.Y. TIMES (Feb. 26, 2000), http://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/26/nyregion/diallo-verdict-overview-4-officers- dialloshooting-are-acquitted-all-charges.html. Nineteen bullets hit Diallo, killing him.
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46. see also B. Keith Payne, Weapon Bias: Split-Second Decisions and Unintended Stereotyping, 15 CURRENT DIRECTIONS PSYCHOL. SCI. 287, 288 (2006)
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48. See Margo J. Monteith et al., Putting the Brakes on Prejudice: On the Development and Operation of Cues for Control, 83 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1029, 1032, 1038-39 (2002).
49. Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability, in JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES 163-64 (Daniel Kahneman et al. eds., 1982
50. Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, Subjective Probability: A Judgment of Representativeness, 3 COGNITIVE PSYCHOL. 430, 432-33 (1972).
51. See Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky, On the Psychology of Prediction, in JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES
52. Amos Tversky & Daniel Kahneman, Availability: A Heuristic for Judging Frequency and Probability, 5 COGNITIVE PSYCHOL. 207, 208 (1973).
53. Shelley E. Taylor, The Availability Bias in Social Perception and Interaction, in JUDGMENT UNDER UNCERTAINTY: HEURISTICS AND BIASES
54. Thomas Gilovich & Dale Griffin, Introduction-Heuristics and Biases: Then and Now, in HEURISTICS AND BIASES: THE PSYCHOLOGY OF INTUITIVE JUDGMENT
55. Danny Osborne, Perceived Stereotypicality and Eyewitness Memory: Does the Type of Crime Affect Eyewitness Identifications? 62-63 (May 27, 2009)
56. see also Patricia G. Devine & Andrew J. Elliot, Are Racial Stereotypes Really Fading? The Princeton Trilogy Revisited, 21 PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. BULL. 1139, 1139-44 (1995
57. Birt L. Duncan, Differential Social Perception and Attribution of Intergroup Violence: Testing the Lower Limits of Stereotyping of Blacks, 34 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 590, 591 (1976
58. Jennifer L. Eberhardt et al., Seeing Black: Race, Crime, and Visual Processing, 87 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 876, 876 (2004)
59. Sophie Trawalter et al., Attending to Threat: Race-Based Patterns of Selective Attention, 44 J. EXPERIMENTAL SOC. PSYCHOL. 1322, 1322 (2008)
60. See Gregg Hoffmann, Racial Stereotyping in the News: Some General Semantics Alternatives, 48 ETC: REV. GEN. SEMANTICS 22, 23 (1991), available at http://www.generalsemantics.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/05/articles/etc/ 48-1-hoffmann.pdf
61. See generally Travis L. Dixon & Cristina L. Azocar, Priming Crime and Activating Blackness: Understanding the Psychological Impact of the Overrepresentation of Blacks as Lawbreakers on Television News, 57 J. COMM. 229, 229 (2007
62. Travis L. Dixon & Daniel Linz, Race and the Misrepresentation of Victimization on Local Television News, 27 COMM. RES. 547, 548 (2000).
63. Holning Lau, Identity Scripts & Democratic Deliberation, 94 MINN. L. REV. 897, 922-23, 969-70 (2010).
64. I. Bennett Capers, Developments in the Law-Policing, Race, and Place, 44 HARV. C.R.-C.L. L. REV. 43, 68-69 (2009
65. Developments in the Law-Race and the Criminal Process, 101 HARV. L. REV. 1472, 1517 (1988).
66. Lawrence Bobo, Whites' Opposition to Busing: Symbolic Racism or Realistic Group Conflict?, 45 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 1196, 1196 (1983
67. John F. Dovidio, On the Nature of Contemporary Prejudice: The Third Wave, 57 J. SOC. ISSUES 829, 834 (2001
68. Philip Perlmutter, The Decline of Bigotry in America, 46 SOC. 517 (2009).
69. See Linda Hamilton Krieger & Susan T. Fiske, Behavioral Realism in Employment Discrimination Law: Implicit Bias and Disparate Treatment, 94 CALIF. L. REV. 997, 1062 (2006).
70. Myron Rothbart et al., Recall for Confirming Events: Memory Processes and the Maintenance of Social Stereotypes, 15 J. EXPERIMENTAL SOC. PSYCHOL. 343, 344 (1979
71. see also ZIVA KUNDA, SOCIAL COGNITION 130 (1999)
72. Claudia E. Cohen, Person Categories and Social Perception: Testing Some Boundaries of the Processing Effects of Prior Knowledge, 40 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 441, 441 (1981)
73. See Patricia G. Devine et al., The Regulation of Explicit and Implicit Race Bias: The Role of Motivations To Respond Without Prejudice, 82 J. PERSONALITY & SOC. PSYCHOL. 835 (2002).
74. See People v. Brown, 952 N.E.2d 32, 43 (Ill. App. Ct. 2011).
75. JOSHUA DRESSLER, UNDERSTANDING CRIMINAL LAW 225 (5th ed. 2009) [hereinafter DRESSLER, UNDERSTANDING]
76. John F. Wagner Jr., Standard for Determination of Reasonableness of Criminal Defendant's Belief, for Purposes of Self-Defense Claim, that Physical Force Is Necessary-Modern Cases, 73 A.L.R. 4th 993, 996 (1989).
77. Caroline Forell, What's Reasonable: Self-Defense and Mistake in Criminal and Tort Law, 14 LEWIS & CLARK L. REV. 1401, 1404 (2010).
78. See Hattori v. Peairs, 662 So. 2d 509, 511-13 (La. Ct. App. 1995).
79. Karen McVeigh, Trayvon Martin's Death: The Story So Far, GUARDIAN (Mar. 20, 2012, 5:53 PM), http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2012/mar/20/trayvon-martin- death-story-so-far.
80. Amy Goodman & Denis Moynihan, Walking While Black: The Killing of Trayvon Martin, DEMOCRACY NOW! (Mar. 22, 2012), http://www.democracynow.org/ blog/2012/3/22/walking-while-black-the-killing-of-trayvon-martin
81. Matt Gutman & Seni Tienabeso, Trayvon Martin's Last Phone Call Triggers Demand for Arrest, ABC NEWS (Mar. 20, 2012), http://abcnews.go.com/US/ trayvon-martin-arrest-now-abc-reveals-crucial-phone/story?id=15959017#. UEJqcUI8F-U.
82. Charles M. Blow, Op-Ed, The Curious Case of Trayvon Martin, N.Y. TIMES (Mar. 16, 2012), http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/17/opinion/blow-the-curious- case-of-trayvon-martin.html.
83. Rene Stutzman, Police: Zimmerman Says Trayvon Decked Him with One Blow then Began Hammering His Head, ORLANDO SENTINEL (Mar. 26, 2012), http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-03-26/news/os-trayvon-martin-zimmerman- account-20120326-1-miami-schoolspunch-unarmed-black-teenager.
84. Isabelle Zehnder, George Zimmerman's 911 Call Transcribed, EXAMINER.COM (Mar. 24, 2012), www.examiner.com/article/george-zimmerman-s-911-call- transcribed.
85. Affidavit of Probable Cause-Second Degree Murder at 2, State v. Zimmerman, SA No. 1712F04573 (Fla. Cir. Ct. Apr. 11, 2012), available at http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2012/04/12/us/13shooter-document.html.
86. Marylynn Ryan & Michael Martinez, George Zimmerman, Trayvon Martin Case Update: Recent Interview Could Backfire in Court for Zimmerman, NEWS CHANNEL 5 (July 26, 2012), http://www.wptv.com/dpp/news/national/george- zimmerman-travyon-martincase-update-recent-interview-could-backfire-in-court- for-zimmerman.
87. Eric Zorn, Trayvon Martin and the Problematic Timeline, CHI. TRIB. (Apr. 18, 2012), http://blogs.chicagotribune.com/news-columnists-ezorn/2012/04/ trayvon-martin-and-theproblematic-timeline.html (noting that the call ended at approximately 7:13 PM
88. RICARDO AYALA, SANFORD POLICE DEPARTMENT REPORT (2012), available at http://www.wagist.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/04/Twin-Lakes-Shooting-Initial- Report.pdf (noting that the first officers arrived at the scene at 7:17 PM).
89. But see Victoria Nourse, After the Reasonable Man: Getting Over the Subjectivity/Objectivity Question, 11 NEW CRIM. L. REV. 33, 34 (2008)
90. See, e.g., Symposium on the Reasonable Person in Criminal Law, 11 NEW CRIM. L. REV. 1 (2008
91. Nancy S. Ehrenreich, Pluralist Myths and Powerless Men: The Ideology of Reasonableness in Sexual Harassment Law, 99 YALE L.J. 1177 (1990).
92. Mayo Moran, The Reasonable Person: A Conceptual Biography in Comparative Perspective, 14 LEWIS & CLARK L. REV. 1233, 1236 (2010).
93. See Jody D. Armour, Race Ipsa Loquitur: Of Reasonable Racists, Intelligent Bayesians, and Involuntary Negrophobes, 46 STAN. L. REV. 781, 815 (1994)
94. LON L. FULLER & MELVIN ARON EISENBERG, BASIC CONTRACT LAW 700, 702 (5th ed. 1990))
95. See Larry Alexander, Crime and Culpability, 5 J. CONTEMP. LEGAL ISSUES 1, 30 (1994).
96. Joshua Dressler, When "Heterosexual" Men Kill "Homosexual" Men: Reflections on Provocation Law, Sexual Advances, and the "Reasonable Man" Standard, 85 J. CRIM. L. & CRIMINOLOGY 726, 757 (1995).
97. See generally TOM R. TYLER, WHY PEOPLE OBEY THE LAW (1990
98. Reid Griffith Fontaine, An Attack on Self-Defense, 47 AM. CRIM. L. REV. 57, 61 (2010).
99. Joshua Dressler, New Thoughts About the Concept of Justification in the Criminal Law: A Critique of Fletcher's Thinking and Rethinking, 32 UCLA L. REV. 61, 84 (1984
100. H.L.A. HART, PUNISHMENT AND RESPONSIBILITY: ESSAYS IN THE PHILOSOPHY OF LAW 13 (1968).
101. See, e.g., GEORGE FLETCHER, RETHINKING CRIMINAL LAW (1978
102. R. Kent Greenawalt, Violence-Legal Justification and Moral Appraisal, 32 EMORY L.J. 437 (1983
103. Paul H. Robinson, A Theory of Justification: Society Harm as a Prerequisite for Criminal Liability, 23 UCLA L. REV. 266 (1975).
104. George P. Fletcher, Should Intolerable Prison Conditions Generate a Justification or an Excuse for Escape?, 26 UCLA L. REV. 1355, 1358-59 (1979).
105. Donald Horowitz, Justification and Excuse in the Program of the Criminal Law, 49 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 109, 122 (1986)
106. Kent Greenawalt, Distinguishing Justifications from Excuses, 49 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 89, 91 (1986
107. Joshua Dressler, Justifications and Excuses: A Brief Review of the Concepts and the Literature, 33 WAYNE L. REV. 1155, 1163 (1987)
108. Richard Singer, The Resurgence of Mens Rea: II-Honest but Unreasonable Mistake of Fact in Self Defense, 28 B.C. L. REV. 459, 513 (1987
109. see also Edwin R. Keedy, Ignorance and Mistake in the Criminal Law, 22 HARV. L. REV. 75, 84-85 (1908)
110. GEORGE FLETCHER, RETHINKING CRIMINAL LAW (1978)).
111. see also Katharine T. Bartlett, Making Good on Good Intentions: The Critical Role of Motivation in Reducing Implicit Workplace Discrimination, 95 VA. L. REV. 1893 (2009).
112. Mark W. Bennett, Unraveling the Gordian Knot of Implicit Bias in Jury Selection: The Problems of Judge-Dominated Voir Dire, the Failed Promise of Batson, and Proposed Solutions, 4 HARV. L. & POL'Y REV. 149, 169 (2010).
113. Garrett Epps, Any Which Way but Loose: Interpretive Strategies and Attitudes Toward Violence in the Evolution of the Anglo-American "Retreat Rule," 55 LAW & CONTEMP. PROBS. 303, 307-08 (1992).
114. Joseph H. Beale, Jr., Retreat from a Murderous Assault, 16 HARV. L. REV. 567, 568 (1903).
115. see RICHARD MAXWELL BROWN, NO DUTY TO RETREAT: VIOLENCE AND VALUES IN AMERICAN HISTORY AND SOCIETY (1991).
116. Runyan v. State, 57 Ind. 80, 84 (1877).
117. See, e.g., Pond v. People, 8 Mich. 150, 175-77 (1860).
118. Runyan v. State, 57 Ind. 80, 84 (1877).
119. Brown v. United States, 256 U.S. 335 (1921).
120. See generally Anthony J. Sebok, Florida's New "Stand Your Ground" Law: Why It's More Extreme than Other States' Self-Defense Measures, and How It Got That Way, FINDLAW (May 2, 2005), http://writ.news. findlaw.com/sebok/20050502.html.
121. Jason W. Bobo, Following the Trend: Alabama Abandons the Duty To Retreat and Encourages Citizens To Stand Their Ground, 38 CUMB. L. REV. 339, 339 (2008
122. Abby Goodnough, Florida Expands Right To Use Deadly Force in Self- Defense, N.Y. TIMES (Apr. 27, 2005), http://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/27/national/ 27shoot.html.
123. FLA. S. JUDICIARY COMM., SENATE STAFF ANALYSIS AND ECONOMIC IMPACT STATEMENT, S. 19-CS/CS/SB 436, 1st Reg. Sess., at 5 (2005), available at http://archive.flsenate.gov/data/session/2005/Senate/bills/analysis/pdf/ 2005s0436.ju.pdf.
124. Sanford H. Kadish, Respect for Life and Regard for Rights in the Criminal Law, 64 CALIF. L. REV. 871, 883 (1976)
125. See Adam Benforado, Quick on the Draw: Implicit Bias and the Second Amendment, 89 OR. L. REV. 1, 57-59 (2010)
126. Adam Liptak, 15 States Expand Right To Shoot in Self-Defense, N.Y. TIMES (Aug. 7, 2006), http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/07/us/07shoot.html.
127. See, e.g., Kate Abbey-Lambertz, Stand Your Ground: Michigan Act Similar to Florida Law Used in Trayvon Martin Case Provokes Repeal Effort, HUFFINGTON POST (May 18, 2012), http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/18/stand-your-ground- michigan-law-florida-trayvonmartin-self-defense-act-n-1527349.html
128. Hayes Hunt, "Stand Your Ground" Laws-The Trayvon Martin Case & Neighborhood Watch Groups, FROM THE SIDEBAR (Apr. 9, 2012),http:// practiceview.muzeview.com/links/index.php?id=3670757
129. see also Adam Cohen, The Growing Movement To Repeal "Stand Your Ground" Laws, TIME IDEAS (Apr. 16, 2012), http://ideas.time.com/2012/04/16/ thegrowing-movement-to-repeal-stand-your-ground-laws.
130. see also Redcross v. State, 708 A.2d 1154, 1158 (Md. Ct. Spec. App. 1998).
131. Kenneth W. Simons, Self-Defense: Reasonable Beliefs or Reasonable Self-Control?, 11 NEW CRIM. L. REV. 51, 78 (2008).
132. See generally WESLEY G. SKOGAN & SUSAN M. HARTNETT, COMMUNITY POLICING, CHICAGO STYLE (1997)
133. ROBERT TROJANOWICZ & BONNIE BUCQUEROUX, COMMUNITY POLICING: HOW TO GET STARTED (2d ed. 1998) (same).
134. See generally TOM R. TYLER & YUEN J. HUO, TRUST IN THE LAW: ENCOURAGING PUBLIC COOPERATION WITH THE POLICE AND COURTS 49-57 (2002)
135. Jason Sunshine & Tom Tyler, Moral Solidarity, Identification with the Community, and the Importance of Procedural Justice: The Police as Prototypical Representatives of a Group's Moral Values, 66 SOC. PSYCHOL. Q. 153 (2003)
136. Jason Sunshine & Tom R. Tyler, The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing, 37 LAW & SOC'Y REV. 513 (2003)
137. See Phillip Atiba Goff & L. Song Richardson, No Bigots Required: What the Science of Racial Bias Reveals in the Wake of Travyon Martin, in PURSUING TRAYVON MARTIN: HISTORICAL CONTEXTS AND CONTEMPORARY MANIFESTATIONS OF RACIAL DYNAMICS (George Yancy & Janine Jones eds.) (forthcoming fall 2012)
138. See Thomas C. Holt, Marking: Race, Race-Making, and the Writing of History, 100 AM. HIST. REV. 1, 1 (1995)