Autoimmune hepatitis in diverse ethnic populations and geographical regions

Expert Review of Gastroenterology and Hepatology

Volumn 7, Issue 4, 2013, Pages 365-385

  Czaja, Albert J ^a  

^a MAYO CLINIC   (United States)

Author keywords

autoimmune hepatitis; cholestasis; ethnic background; genetic predispositions; non white patients; regional differences

Indexed keywords

AZATHIOPRINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PREDNISOLONE; PREDNISONE; TACROLIMUS; URSODEOXYCHOLIC ACID;

ABORIGINE; ACUTE ON CHRONIC LIVER FAILURE; AFRICA; AFRICAN AMERICAN; ASIA; ASIAN AMERICAN; AUTOIMMUNE HEPATITIS; CANADA; CAUCASIAN; CLINICAL FEATURE; CULTURAL FACTOR; DRUG MEGADOSE; ETHNIC GROUP; EUROPE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; GEOGRAPHY; HISPANIC; HISTOLOGY; HUMAN; INDIA; LIVER CIRRHOSIS; LIVER TRANSPLANTATION; MEXICO; MIDDLE EAST; MORTALITY; OUTCOME ASSESSMENT; PHARMACOGENOMICS; PHENOTYPE; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; SOCIOECONOMICS; SOUTH AMERICA; SURVIVAL; TREATMENT FAILURE; TREATMENT RESPONSE; UNITED STATES;

CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; ETHNIC GROUPS; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION TO DISEASE; HEALTH STATUS DISPARITIES; HEALTHCARE DISPARITIES; HEPATITIS, AUTOIMMUNE; HUMANS; PHENOTYPE; PROGNOSIS; RESIDENCE CHARACTERISTICS; RISK FACTORS; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 84877250391     PISSN: 17474124     EISSN: 17474132     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1586/egh.13.21     Document Type: Review

References (227)

1. Cowling DC, Mackay IR, Taft LI. Lupoid hepatitis. Lancet 271(6957), 1323-1326 (1956).
2. Mistilis SP, Skyring AP, Blackburn CR. Natural history of active chronic hepatitis. I. Clinical features, course, diagnostic criteria, morbidity, mortality and survival. Australas. Ann. Med. 17(3), 214-223 (1968).
3. Read AE, Sherlock S, Harrison CV. Active 'juvenile' cirrhosis considered as part of a systemic disease and the effect of corticosteroid therapy. Gut 4, 378-393 (1963).
4. Bearn AG, Kunkel HG, Slater RJ. The problem of chronic liver disease in young women. Am. J. Med. 21(1), 3-15 (1956).
5. Doniach D, Roitt IM, Walker JG, Sherlock S. Tissue antibodies in primary biliary cirrhosis, active chronic (lupoid) hepatitis, cryptogenic cirrhosis and other liver diseases and their clinical implications. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 1(3), 237-262 (1966).
6. Toh BH. Smooth muscle autoantibodies and autoantigens. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 38(3), 621-628 (1979).
7. Tan EM, Chan EK, Sullivan KF, Rubin RL. Antinuclear antibodies (ANAs): diagnostically specific immune markers and clues toward the understanding of systemic autoimmunity. Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol. 47(2), 121-141 (1988).
8. Homberg JC, Abuaf N, Bernard O et al. Chronic active hepatitis associated with antiliver/kidney microsome antibody type 1: a second type of 'autoimmune' hepatitis. Hepatology 7(6), 1333-1339 (1987).
9. Czaja AJ. Genetic factors affecting the occurrence, clinical phenotype, and outcome of autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6(4), 379-388 (2008).
10. Cook GC, Mulligan R, Sherlock S. Controlled prospective trial of corticosteroid therapy in active chronic hepatitis. Q. J. Med. 40(158), 159-185 (1971).
11. Soloway RD, Summerskill WH, Baggenstoss AH et al. Clinical, biochemical, and histological remission of severe chronic active liver disease: a controlled study of treatments and early prognosis. Gastroenterology 63(5), 820-833 (1972).
12. Murray-Lyon IM, Stern RB, Williams R. Controlled trial of prednisone and azathioprine in active chronic hepatitis. Lancet 1(7806), 735-737 (1973).
13. Opelz G, Vogten AJ, Summerskill WH, Schalm SW, Terasaki PI. HLA determinants in chronic active liver disease: possible relation of HLA-Dw3 to prognosis. Tissue Antigens 9(1), 36-40 (1977).
14. Donaldson PT, Doherty DG, Hayllar KM, McFarlane IG, Johnson PJ, Williams R. Susceptibility to autoimmune chronic active hepatitis: human leukocyte antigens DR4 and A1-B8-DR3 are independent risk factors. Hepatology 13(4), 701-706 (1991).
15. Strettell MD, Donaldson PT, Thomson LJ et al. Allelic basis for HLA-encoded susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 112(6), 2028-2035 (1997).
16. Djilali-Saiah I, Fakhfakh A, Louafi H, Caillat-Zucman S, Debray D, Alvarez F. HLA class II influences humoral autoimmunity in patients with type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 45(6), 844-850 (2006).
17. Agarwal K, Czaja AJ, Jones DE, Donaldson PT. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) gene polymorphisms and susceptibility to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 31(1), 49-53 (2000).
18. Cookson S, Constantini PK, Clare M et al. Frequency and nature of cytokine gene polymorphisms in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 30(4), 851-856 (1999).
19. Agarwal K, Czaja AJ, Donaldson PT. A functional Fas promoter polymorphism is associated with a severe phenotype in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis characterized by early development of cirrhosis. Tissue Antigens 69(3), 227-235 (2007).
20. Vogel A, Strassburg CP, Manns MP. Genetic association of vitamin D receptor polymorphisms with primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 35(1), 126-131 (2002).
21. Alvarez F, Berg PA, Bianchi FB et al. International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group Report: review of criteria for diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 31(5), 929-938 (1999).
22. Hennes EM, Zeniya M, Czaja AJ et al.; International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Simplified criteria for the diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 48(1), 169-176 (2008).
23. Whittingham S, Mackay IR, Thanabalasundrum RS et al. Chronic liver disease: differences in autoimmune serological reactions between Australians and Asians. Br. Med. J. 4(5891), 517-519 (1973).
24. Sagnelli E, Colombo M, Del Ninno E, Vernace SJ, Paronetto F. Geographic differences in HBV related, autoimmune, and cryptogenic chronic active hepatitis. Liver 2(2), 119-124 (1982).
25. Baeres M, Herkel J, Czaja AJ et al. Establishment of standardised SLA/LP immunoassays: specificity for autoimmune hepatitis, worldwide occurrence, and clinical characteristics. Gut 51(2), 259-264 (2002).
26. Czaja AJ, Donaldson PT, Lohse AW. Antibodies to soluble liver antigen/liver pancreas and HLA risk factors for type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97(2), 413-419 (2002).
27. Lim KN, Casanova RL, Boyer TD, Bruno CJ. Autoimmune hepatitis in African Americans: presenting features and response to therapy. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 96(12), 3390-3394 (2001).
28. Zolfino T, Heneghan MA, Norris S, Harrison PM, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG. Characteristics of autoimmune hepatitis in patients who are not of European Caucasoid ethnic origin. Gut 50(5), 713-717 (2002).
29. Hurlburt KJ, McMahon BJ, Deubner H, Hsu-Trawinski B, Williams JL, Kowdley KV. Prevalence of autoimmune liver disease in Alaska natives. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97(9), 2402-2407 (2002).
30. Czaja AJ, Souto EO, Bittencourt PL et al. Clinical distinctions and pathogenic implications of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Brazil and the United States. J. Hepatol. 37(3), 302-308 (2002).
31. Czaja AJ, Bayraktar Y. Non-classical phenotypes of autoimmune hepatitis and advances in diagnosis and treatment. World J. Gastroenterol. 15(19), 2314-2328 (2009).
32. Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis in special patient populations. Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 25(6), 689-700 (2011).
33. Liberal R, Vergani D. Effect of ethnicity on the clinical presentation and outcome of autoimmune hepatitis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6(3), 267-269 (2012).
34. Pando M, Larriba J, Fernandez GC et al. Pediatric and adult forms of type I autoimmune hepatitis in Argentina: evidence for differential genetic predisposition. Hepatology 30(6), 1374-1380 (1999).
35. Fainboim L, Cañero Velasco MC, Marcos CY et al. Protracted, but not acute, hepatitis A virus infection is strongly associated with HLA-DRB 1301, a marker for pediatric autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 33(6), 1512-1517 (2001).
36. Nguyen GC, Thuluvath PJ. Racial disparity in liver disease: Biological, cultural, or socioeconomic factors. Hepatology 47(3), 1058-1066 (2008).
37. Johnson PJ, McFarlane IG. Meeting report: International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Hepatology 18(4), 998-1005 (1993).
38. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictability of biopsy interpretations in chronic hepatitis. Gastroenterology 105(6), 1824-1832 (1993).
39. Czaja AJ. Performance parameters of the diagnostic scoring systems for autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 48(5), 1540-1548 (2008).
40. Muñoz-Espinosa L, Alarcon G, Mercado- Moreira A et al. Performance of the international classifications criteria for autoimmune hepatitis diagnosis in Mexican patients. Autoimmunity 44(7), 543-548 (2011).
41. Fujiwara K, Yasui S, Tawada A, Fukuda Y, Nakano M, Yokosuka O. Diagnostic value and utility of the simplified International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group criteria in acute-onset autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 31(7), 1013-1020 (2011).
42. Qiu D, Wang Q, Wang H et al. Validation of the simplified criteria for diagnosis of autoimmune hepatitis in Chinese patients. J. Hepatol. 54(2), 340-347 (2011).
43. Verma S, Torbenson M, Thuluvath PJ. The impact of ethnicity on the natural history of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 46(6), 1828-1835 (2007).
44. Czaja AJ, Strettell MD, Thomson LJ et al. Associations between alleles of the major histocompatibility complex and type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 25(2), 317-323 (1997).
45. Czaja AJ. Rapidity of treatment response and outcome in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 51(1), 161-167 (2009).
46. Sanchez-Urdazpal L, Czaja AJ, van Hoek B, Krom RA, Wiesner RH. Prognostic features and role of liver transplantation in severe corticosteroid-treated autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 15(2), 215-221 (1992).
47. Yates CR, Chang C, Kearbey JD et al. Structural determinants of P-glycoproteinmediated transport of glucocorticoids. Pharm. Res. 20(11), 1794-1803 (2003).
48. Czock D, Keller F, Rasche FM, Häussler U. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of systemically administered glucocorticoids. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 44(1), 61-98 (2005).
49. Tornatore KM, Sudchada P, Dole K et al. Mycophenolic acid pharmacokinetics during maintenance immunosuppression in African American and Caucasian renal transplant recipients. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 51(8), 1213-1222 (2011).
50. Betonico GN, Abudd-Filho M, Goloni- Bertollo EM, Pavarino-Bertelli E. Pharmacogenetics of mycophenolate mofetil: a promising different approach to tailoring immunosuppression? J. Nephrol. 21(4), 503-509 (2008).
51. Lévesque E, Benoit-Biancamano MO, Delage R, Couture F, Guillemette C. Pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil and its glucuronide metabolites in healthy volunteers. Pharmacogenomics 9(7), 869-879 (2008).
52. Christians U, Strom T, Zhang YL et al. Active drug transport of immunosuppressants: new insights for pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics. Ther. Drug Monit. 28(1), 39-44 (2006).
53. Czaja AJ. Drug choices in autoimmune hepatitis: part A - steroids. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6(5), 603-615 (2012).
54. Czaja AJ. Drug choices in autoimmune hepatitis: part B - nonsteroids. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 6(5), 617-635 (2012).
55. Eckhoff DE, McGuire BM, Young CJ et al. Race: a critical factor in organ donation, patient referral and selection, and orthotopic liver transplantation? Liver Transpl. Surg. 4(6), 499-505 (1998).
56. Kemmer N, Safdar K, Kaiser TE, Zacharias V, Neff GW. Liver transplantation trends for older recipients: regional and ethnic variations. Transplantation 86(1), 104-107 (2008).
57. Bryce CL, Chang CC, Angus DC, Arnold RM, Farrell M, Roberts MS. The effect of race, sex, and insurance status on time-to-listing decisions for liver transplantation. J. Transplant. 2010, 467976 (2010).
58. Nguyen GC, Segev DL, Thuluvath PJ. Racial disparities in the management of hospitalized patients with cirrhosis and complications of portal hypertension: a national study. Hepatology 45(5), 1282-1289 (2007).
59. Wong RJ, Corley DA. Survival differences by race/ethnicity and treatment for localized hepatocellular carcinoma within the United States. Dig. Dis. Sci. 54(9), 2031-2039 (2009).
60. Mathur AK, Osborne NH, Lynch RJ, Ghaferi AA, Dimick JB, Sonnenday CJ. Racial/ethnic disparities in access to care and survival for patients with early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma. Arch. Surg. 145(12), 1158-1163 (2010).
61. Siegel AB, McBride RB, El-Serag HB et al. Racial disparities in utilization of liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States, 1998-2002. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103(1), 120-127 (2008).
62. Yu JC, Neugut AI, Wang S et al. Racial and insurance disparities in the receipt of transplant among patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Cancer 116(7), 1801-1809 (2010).
63. Kemmer N, Neff G, Secic M, Zacharias V, Kaiser T, Buell J. Ethnic differences in hepatocellular carcinoma: implications for liver transplantation. Dig. Dis. Sci. 53(2), 551-555 (2008).
64. Robbins AS, Cox DD, Johnson LB, Ward EM. Persistent disparities in liver transplantation for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma in the United States, through 2007. Cancer 117(19), 4531-4539 (2011).
65. Chalasani N, Saha C, Teal E. Are there ethnicity-based differences in the evaluation of individuals with abnormal liver biochemistries? J. Hepatol. 47(1), 123-127 (2007).
66. Lee TH, Shah N, Pedersen RA et al. Survival after liver transplantation: is racial disparity inevitable? Hepatology 46(5), 1491-1497 (2007).
67. Bzowej N, Han S, Degertekin B et al.; National Institutes of Health Hepatitis B Virus Orthotopic Liver Transplantation Study Group. Liver transplantation outcomes among Caucasians, Asian Americans, and African Americans with hepatitis B. Liver Transpl. 15(9), 1010-1020 (2009).
68. Harvin JA, Van Buren G, Tsao K, Cen P, Ko TC, Wray CJ. Hepatocellular carcinoma survival in uninsured and underinsured patients. J. Surg. Res. 166(2), 189-193 (2011).
69. Manns MP, Czaja AJ, Gorham JD et al.; American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases. Diagnosis and management of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 51(6), 2193-2213 (2010).
70. Wong RJ, Gish R, Frederick T, Bzowej N, Frenette C. The impact of race/ethnicity on the clinical epidemiology of autoimmune hepatitis. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 46(2), 155-161 (2012).
71. Hummer RA. Adult mortality differentials among Hispanic subgroups and non- Hispanic whites. Soc. Sci. Q. 81(1), 459-476 (2000).
72. Morales LS, Lara M, Kington RS, Valdez RO, Escarce JJ. Socioeconomic, cultural, and behavioral factors affecting Hispanic health outcomes. J. Health Care Poor Underserved 13(4), 477-503 (2002).
73. Carrion AF, Ghanta R, Carrasquillo O, Martin P. Chronic liver disease in the Hispanic population of the United States. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 9(10), 834-841; quiz e109 (2011).
74. Vong S, Bell BP. Chronic liver disease mortality in the United States, 1990-1998. Hepatology 39(2), 476-483 (2004).
75. Vázquez-García MN, Aláez C, Olivo A et al. MHC class II sequences of susceptibility and protection in Mexicans with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 28(6), 985-990 (1998).
76. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA, Santrach PJ, Moore SB. Significance of HLA DR4 in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Gastroenterology 105(5), 1502-1507 (1993).
77. Futagawa Y, Terasaki PI. An analysis of the OPTN/UNOS Liver Transplant Registry. Clin. Transpl. 315-329 (2004).
78. Forde KA, Reddy KR, Troxel AB, Sanders CM, Lee WM; Acute Liver Failure Study Group. Racial and ethnic differences in presentation, etiology, and outcomes of acute liver failure in the United States. Clin. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 7(10), 1121-1126 (2009).
79. Boberg KM, Aadland E, Jahnsen J, Raknerud N, Stiris M, Bell H. Incidence and prevalence of primary biliary cirrhosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, and autoimmune hepatitis in a Norwegian population. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 33(1), 99-103 (1998).
80. Werner M, Prytz H, Ohlsson B et al. Epidemiology and the initial presentation of autoimmune hepatitis in Sweden: a nationwide study. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 43(10), 1232-1240 (2008).
81. Michalska Z, Radowska D, Staike P et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in the material of Department and Regional Hospital of Infectious Diseases in Gdansk. Med. Sci. Monit. 9(Suppl. 3), 49-54 (2003).
82. Ferrari R, Pappas G, Agostinelli D et al. Type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: patterns of clinical presentation and differential diagnosis of the 'acute' type. QJM 97(7), 407-412 (2004).
83. Kogan J, Safadi R, Ashur Y, Shouval D, Ilan Y. Prognosis of symptomatic versus asymptomatic autoimmune hepatitis: a study of 68 patients. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 35(1), 75-81 (2002).
84. Feld JJ, Dinh H, Arenovich T, Marcus VA, Wanless IR, Heathcote EJ. Autoimmune hepatitis: effect of symptoms and cirrhosis on natural history and outcome. Hepatology 42(1), 53-62 (2005).
85. Scott JD, Garland N. Chronic liver disease in Aboriginal North Americans. World J. Gastroenterol. 14(29), 4607-4615 (2008).
86. Minuk GY, Liu S, Kaita K et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in a North American Aboriginal/First Nations population. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 22(10), 829-834 (2008).
87. Rempel JD, Hawkins K, Lande E, Nickerson P. The potential influence of KIR cluster profiles on disease patterns of Canadian Aboriginals and other indigenous peoples of the Americas. Eur. J. Hum. Genet. 19(12), 1276-1280 (2011).
88. Chavez-Tapia NC, Martinez-Salgado J, Granados J, Uribe M, Tellez-Avila FI. Clinical heterogeneity in autoimmune acute liver failure. World J. Gastroenterol. 13(12), 1824-1827 (2007).
89. Sotelo N, López G. Autoimmune-type chronic active hepatitis in children. A report of 23 cases at a hospital in northwestern Mexico. Ann. Hepatol. 4(4), 255-260 (2005).
90. Meza-Junco J, Montaño-Loza AJ, Martínez-Benitez B, Kimura-Hayama E. Hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with autoimmune liver diseases: two case reports and literature review. Ann. Hepatol. 6(2), 122-126 (2007).
91. Zepeda-Gomez S, Montaño-Loza A, Zapata-Colindres JC et al. HLA-DR allele frequencies in Mexican mestizos with autoimmune liver diseases including overlap syndromes. Immunol. Invest. 38(3-4), 276-283 (2009).
92. Coss Adame E, Granados J, Uribe M, Torre A. Does HLA-DR7 differentiate the overlap syndrome of auto-immune hepatitis-primary biliary cirrhosis (AIH-PBC) from those with auto-immune hepatitis type 1? Ann. Hepatol. 10(1), 28-32 (2011).
93. Al-Chalabi T, Boccato S, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG, Heneghan MA. Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) in the elderly: a systematic retrospective analysis of a large group of consecutive patients with definite AIH followed at a tertiary referral centre. J. Hepatol. 45(4), 575-583 (2006).
94. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA. Distinctive clinical phenotype and treatment outcome of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in the elderly. Hepatology 43(3), 532-538 (2006).
95. Bittencourt PL, Farias AQ, Porta G et al. Frequency of concurrent autoimmune disorders in patients with autoimmune hepatitis: effect of age, gender, and genetic background. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 42(3), 300-305 (2008).
96. Castro-E-Silva O, Sankarankutty AK, Teixeira AC et al. Liver transplantation at a university hospital, faculty of the medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo: results for the first 60 recipients. Transplant. Proc. 40(3), 785-788 (2008).
97. Padilla M, Mayorga R, Carrasco F et al. Liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis in Peru: outcomes and recurrence. Ann. Hepatol. 11(2), 222-227 (2012).
98. Fainboim L, Marcos Y, Pando M et al. Chronic active autoimmune hepatitis in children. Strong association with a particular HLA-DR6 (DRB1 1301) haplotype. Hum. Immunol. 41(2), 146-150 (1994).
99. Marcos Y, Fainboim HA, Capucchio M et al. Two-locus involvement in the association of human leukocyte antigen with the extrahepatic manifestations of autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 19(6), 1371-1374 (1994).
100. Goldberg AC, Bittencourt PL, Mougin B et al. Analysis of HLA haplotypes in autoimmune hepatitis type 1: identifying the major susceptibility locus. Hum. Immunol. 62(2), 165-169 (2001).
101. Fortes Mdel P, Machado IV, Gil G et al. Genetic contribution of major histocompatibility complex class II region to type 1 autoimmune hepatitis susceptibility in Venezuela. Liver Int. 27(10), 1409-1416 (2007).
102. Bittencourt PL, Goldberg AC, Cançado EL et al. Genetic heterogeneity in susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis types 1 and 2. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94(7), 1906-1913 (1999).
103. Tabak F, Ozdemir F, Tabak O, Erer B, Tahan V, Ozaras R. Autoimmune hepatitis induced by the prolonged hepatitis A virus infection. Ann. Hepatol. 7(2), 177-179 (2008).
104. Elfaramawy AA, Elhossiny RM, Abbas AA, Aziz HM. HLA-DRB1 as a risk factor in children with autoimmune hepatitis and its relation to hepatitis A infection. Ital. J. Pediatr. 36, 73 (2010).
105. Tapia-Conyer R, Santos JI, Cavalcanti AM et al. Hepatitis A in Latin America: a changing epidemiologic pattern. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61(5), 825-829 (1999).
106. Czaja AJ. Autoimmune hepatitis. Part A: pathogenesis. Expert Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 1(1), 113-128 (2007).
107. McFarlane IG. Autoimmune hepatitis: diagnostic criteria, subclassifications, and clinical features. Clin. Liver Dis. 6(3), 605-621 (2002).
108. Primo J, Maroto N, Martínez M et al. Incidence of adult form of autoimmune hepatitis in Valencia (Spain). Acta Gastroenterol. Belg. 72(4), 402-406 (2009).
109. Kanzler S, Löhr H, Gerken G, Galle PR, Lohse AW. Long-term management and prognosis of autoimmune hepatitis (AIH): a single center experience. Z. Gastroenterol. 39(5), 339-41, 344 (2001).
110. Floreani A, Niro G, Rosa Rizzotto E et al. Type I autoimmune hepatitis: clinical course and outcome in an Italian multicentre study. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24(7), 1051-1057 (2006).
111. Yeoman AD, Al-Chalabi T, Karani JB et al. Evaluation of risk factors in the development of hepatocellular carcinoma in autoimmune hepatitis: Implications for follow-up and screening. Hepatology 48(3), 863-870 (2008).
112. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Predictive factors for hepatocellular carcinoma in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 103(8), 1944-1951 (2008).
113. Ratziu V, Samuel D, Sebagh M et al. Long-term follow-up after liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis: evidence of recurrence of primary disease. J. Hepatol. 30(1), 131-141 (1999).
114. Vogel A, Heinrich E, Bahr MJ et al. Long-term outcome of liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis. Clin. Transplant. 18(1), 62-69 (2004).
115. Gomez Cabeza de Vaca V, Bernal BC, Alamo MJN et al. Liver transplantation due to fulminant hepatic failure. Transplant Proc. 44, 2076-2077 (2012).
116. Núñez-Martínez O, De la Cruz G, Salcedo M et al. Liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis: fulminant versus chronic hepatitis presentation. Transplant. Proc. 35(5), 1857-1858 (2003).
117. Duclos-Vallée JC, Sebagh M, Rifai K et al. A 10 year follow up study of patients transplanted for autoimmune hepatitis: histological recurrence precedes clinical and biochemical recurrence. Gut 52(6), 893-897 (2003).
118. Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Reid F et al. Autoimmune hepatitis in childhood: a 20-year experience. Hepatology 25(3), 541-547 (1997).
119. Gregorio GV, Portmann B, Karani J et al. Autoimmune hepatitis/sclerosing cholangitis overlap syndrome in childhood: a 16-year prospective study. Hepatology 33(3), 544-553 (2001).
120. Manns M, Zanger U, Gerken G et al. Patients with type II autoimmune hepatitis express functionally intact cytochrome P-450 db1 that is inhibited by LKM-1 autoantibodies in vitro but not in vivo. Hepatology 12(1), 127-132 (1990).
121. Muratori L, Cataleta M, Muratori P, Lenzi M, Bianchi FB. Liver/kidney microsomal antibody type 1 and liver cytosol antibody type 1 concentrations in type 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Gut 42(5), 721-726 (1998).
122. Czaja AJ, Manns MP, Homburger HA. Frequency and significance of antibodies to liver/kidney microsome type 1 in adults with chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 103(4), 1290-1295 (1992).
123. Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Autoimmune hepatitis in children: what is different from adult AIH? Semin. Liver Dis. 29(3), 297-306 (2009).
124. Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Unique features of primary sclerosing cholangitis in children. Curr. Opin. Gastroenterol. 26(3), 265-268 (2010).
125. Mieli-Vergani G, Vergani D. Autoimmune liver diseases in children - what is different from adulthood? Best Pract. Res. Clin. Gastroenterol. 25(6), 783-795 (2011).
126. Czaja AJ, Kruger M, Santrach PJ, Moore SB, Manns MP. Genetic distinctions between types 1 and 2 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 92(12), 2197-2200 (1997).
127. Muratori P, Czaja AJ, Muratori L et al. Evidence of a genetic basis for the different geographic occurrences of liver/kidney microsomal antibody type 1 in hepatitis C. Dig. Dis. Sci. 52(1), 179-184 (2007).
128. Teufel A, Wörns M, Weinmann A et al. Genetic association of autoimmune hepatitis and human leucocyte antigen in German patients. World J. Gastroenterol. 12(34), 5513-5516 (2006).
129. Muratori P, Czaja AJ, Muratori L et al. Genetic distinctions between autoimmune hepatitis in Italy and North America. World J. Gastroenterol. 11(12), 1862-1866 (2005).
130. Asvat MS, Hodkinson HJ. Chronic active hepatitis at Baragwanath Hospital. S. Afr. Med. J. 63(16), 602-604 (1983).
131. D'Souza R, Sinnott P, Glynn MJ, Sabin CA, Foster GR. An unusual form of autoimmune hepatitis in young Somalian men. Liver Int. 25(2), 325-330 (2005).
132. Attia KA, Ackoundou-N'guessan KC, N'dri-Yoman AT et al. Child-Pugh-Turcott versus Meld score for predicting survival in a retrospective cohort of black African cirrhotic patients. World J. Gastroenterol. 14(2), 286-291 (2008).
133. Czaja AJ. The overlap syndromes of autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 58(2), 326-343 (2013).
134. Boberg KM, Chapman RW, Hirschfield GM, Lohse AW, Manns MP, Schrumpf E; International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group. Overlap syndromes: the International Autoimmune Hepatitis Group (IAIHG) position statement on a controversial issue. J. Hepatol. 54(2), 374-385 (2011).
135. Selvarajah V, Montano-Loza AJ, Czaja AJ. Systematic review: managing suboptimal treatment responses in autoimmune hepatitis with conventional and nonstandard drugs. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 36(8), 691-707 (2012).
136. Jalihal A, Telisinghe PU, Chong VH. Profiles of autoimmune hepatitis in Brunei Darussalam. HBPD INT 8(6), 602-607 (2009).
137. Rafeey M, Kianrad M, Hasani A. Autoimmune hepatitis in Iranian children. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 26(1), 11-13 (2007).
138. Abu Faddan NH, Abdel-Baky L, Aly SA, Rashed HA. Clinico-laboratory study on children with auto-immune hepatitis in Upper Egypt. Arab J. Gastroenterol. 12(4), 178-183 (2011).
139. Fallatah HI, Akbar HO, Qari YA. Autoimmune hepatitis: single-center experience of clinical presentation, response to treatment and prognosis in Saudi Arabia. Saudi J. Gastroenterol. 16(2), 95-99 (2010).
140. Günsar F, Akarca US, Ersöz G, Karasu Z, Yüce G, Batur Y. Clinical and biochemical features and therapy responses in primary biliary cirrhosis and primary biliary cirrhosis-autoimmune hepatitis overlap syndrome. Hepatogastroenterology. 49(47), 1195-1200 (2002).
141. Kaymakoglu S, Cakaloglu Y, Demir K et al. Is severe cryptogenic chronic hepatitis similar to autoimmune hepatitis? J. Hepatol. 28(1), 78-83 (1998).
142. Kosar Y, Kacar S, Sasmaz N et al. Type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Turkish patients: absence of association with HLA B8. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 35(2), 185-190 (2002).
143. Czaja AJ. Autoantibody-negative autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 57(3), 610-624 (2012).
144. Aydogdu S, Ozgenç F, Yurtsever S, Akman SA, Tokat Y, Yagci RV. Our experience with fulminant hepatic failure in Turkish children: etiology and outcome. J. Trop. Pediatr. 49(6), 367-370 (2003).
145. Efe C, Wahlin S, Ozaslan E et al. Autoimmune hepatitis/primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome and associated extrahepatic autoimmune diseases. Eur. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 24(5), 531-534 (2012).
146. Cindoruk M, Yetkin I, Karakan T, Kandilci U. The prevalence of autoimmune hepatitis in Hashimoto's thyroiditis in a Turkish population. Acta Gastroenterol. Belg. 65(3), 143-145 (2002).
147. El-Shabrawi M, El-Karaksy H, Mohsen N, Isa M, Al-Biltagi M, El-Ansari M. Celiac disease in children and adolescents with autoimmune hepatitis: a single-centre experience. J. Trop. Pediatr. 57(2), 104-108 (2011).
148. Montano-Loza AJ, Carpenter HA, Czaja AJ. Features associated with treatment failure in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis and predictive value of the model of end-stage liver disease. Hepatology 46(4), 1138-1145 (2007).
149. Kayacetin E, Köklü S, Temuçin T. Overlap syndrome of primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis with unusual initial presentation as fulminant hepatic failure. Dig. Liver Dis. 36(6), 419-422 (2004).
150. Usta Y, Gurakan F, Akcoren Z, Ozen S. An overlap syndrome involving autoimmune hepatitis and systemic lupus erythematosus in childhood. World J. Gastroenterol. 13(19), 2764-2767 (2007).
151. Geylani Güleç S, Urganci N, Polat TB, Demirel E, Yilmaz E. Relations between human leukocyte antigens and autoimmune hepatitis in Turkish children. Turk. J. Gastroenterol. 22(1), 42-46 (2011).
152. Ray G, Ghoshal UC, Banerjee PK et al. Aetiological spectrum of chronic liver disease in eastern India. Trop. Gastroenterol. 21(2), 60-62 (2000).
153. Gupta R, Agarwal SR, Jain M, Malhotra V, Sarin SK. Autoimmune hepatitis in the Indian subcontinent: 7 years experience. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 16(10), 1144-1148 (2001). • Explains how autoimmune hepatitis is not uncommon in India; has the same clinical phenotype as western disease, but often presents late with cirrhosis.
154. Gohar S, Desai D, Joshi A et al. Autoimmune hepatitis: a study of 50 patients. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 22(4), 140-142 (2003).
155. Amarapurkar DN, Patel ND. Spectrum of autoimmune liver diseases in western India. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 22(12), 2112-2117 (2007).
156. Balakrishnan C, Mangat G, Kalke S et al. The spectrum of chronic autoimmune hepatitis. J. Assoc. Physicians India 46(5), 431-435 (1998).
157. Choudhuri G, Somani SK, Baba CS, Alexander G. Autoimmune hepatitis in India: profile of an uncommon disease. BMC Gastroenterol. 5, 27 (2005).
158. Daschakraborty S, Aggarwal A, Aggarwal R. Non-organ-specific autoantibodies in Indian patients with chronic liver disease. Indian J. Gastroenterol. 31(5), 237-242 (2012). • Autoantibodies are commonly present in Indian patients with chronic liver disease other than autoimmune hepatitis, but antibodies to LKM1 are rare in all patients.
159. Yachha SK, Sharma BC, Khanduri A, Srivastava A. Current spectrum of hepatobiliary disorders in northern India. Indian Pediatr. 34(10), 885-890 (1997).
160. Rajeshwari K, Gogia S. The clinical spectrum of chronic liver disease in children presenting to a tertiary level teaching hospital in New Delhi. Trop. Doct. 38(2), 101-102 (2008).
161. Czaja AJ. Acute and acute severe (fulminant) autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 58(4), 897-914 (2013).
162. Radha Krishna Y, Saraswat VA, Das K et al. Clinical features and predictors of outcome in acute hepatitis A and hepatitis E virus hepatitis on cirrhosis. Liver Int. 29(3), 392-398 (2009).
163. Lal J, Thapa BR, Rawal P, Ratho RK, Singh K. Predictors of outcome in acute-on-chronic liver failure in children. Hepatol. Int. 5(2), 693-697 (2011).
164. Jagadisan B, Srivastava A, Yachha SK, Poddar U. Acute on chronic liver disease in children from the developing world: recognition and prognosis. J. Pediatr. Gastroenterol. Nutr. 54(1), 77-82 (2012).
165. Anand AC, Nagpal AK, Seth AK, Dhot PS. Should one vaccinate patients with chronic liver disease for hepatitis A virus in India? J. Assoc. Physicians India 52, 785-787 (2004).
166. Amarapurkar DN, Patel ND, Amarapurkar AD, Kankonkar SR. HLA genotyping in type-I autoimmune hepatitis in western India. J. Assoc. Physicians India 51, 967-969 (2003).
167. Shankarkumar U, Amarapurkar DN, Kankonkar S. Human leukocyte antigen allele associations in type-1 autoimmune hepatitis patients from western India. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20(2), 193-197 (2005).
168. Nishioka M, Morshed SA, Kono K et al. Frequency and significance of antibodies to P450IID6 protein in Japanese patients with chronic hepatitis C. J. Hepatol. 26(5), 992-1000 (1997).
169. Hu C, Deng C, Song G et al. Prevalence of autoimmune liver disease related autoantibodies in Chinese patients with primary biliary cirrhosis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 56(11), 3357-3363 (2011).
170. Huang HC, Wu JC, Huang YS et al. Genetic distinctions and clinical characteristics of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Taiwan. Hepatogastroenterology. 55(82-83), 605-608 (2008).
171. Fujiwara K, Mochida S, Matsui A, Nakayama N, Nagoshi S, Toda G; Intractable Liver Diseases Study Group of Japan. Fulminant hepatitis and late onset hepatic failure in Japan. Hepatol. Res. 38(7), 646-657 (2008).
172. Fujiwara K, Fukuda Y, Yokosuka O. Precise histological evaluation of liver biopsy specimen is indispensable for diagnosis and treatment of acute-onset autoimmune hepatitis. J. Gastroenterol. 43(12), 951-958 (2008).
173. Hiramatsu A, Takahashi S, Aikata H et al. Etiology and outcome of acute liver failure: retrospective analysis of 50 patients treated at a single center. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 23(8 Pt 1), 1216-1222 (2008).
174. Oketani M, Ido A, Tsubouchi H. Changing etiologies and outcomes of acute liver failure: a perspective from Japan. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 26(Suppl. 1), 65-71 (2011).
175. Fujiwara K, Yasui S, Tawada A et al. Autoimmune fulminant liver failure in adults: experience in a Japanese center. Hepatol. Res. 41(2), 133-141 (2011).
176. Yasui S, Fujiwara K, Yonemitsu Y, Oda S, Nakano M, Yokosuka O. Clinicopathological features of severe and fulminant forms of autoimmune hepatitis. J. Gastroenterol. 46(3), 378-390 (2011).
177. Abe M, Mashiba T, Zeniya M, Yamamoto K, Onji M, Tsubouchi H; Autoimmune Hepatitis Study Group-Subgroup of the Intractable Hepato-Biliary Disease Study Group in Japan. Present status of autoimmune hepatitis in Japan: a nationwide survey. J. Gastroenterol. 46(9), 1136-1141 (2011).
178. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Kobashi H et al. Clinical features of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in adolescence and early adulthood. Hepatol. Res. 39(8), 766-771 (2009).
179. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Takaki A, Kobashi H, Sakaguchi K, Shiratori Y. Clinical features of Japanese elderly patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Intern. Med. 46(24), 1945-1949 (2007).
180. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Sakaguchi K, Shiratori Y. Clinical features of Japanese male patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther. 24(3), 519-523 (2006).
181. Czaja AJ, Donaldson PT. Gender effects and synergisms with histocompatibility leukocyte antigens in type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 97(8), 2051-2057 (2002).
182. Al-Chalabi T, Underhill JA, Portmann BC, McFarlane IG, Heneghan MA. Impact of gender on the long-term outcome and survival of patients with autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 48(1), 140-147 (2008).
183. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Kobashi H et al. Efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid for Japanese patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatol. Int. 3(4), 556-562 (2009).
184. Yoshizawa K, Matsumoto A, Ichijo T et al. Long-term outcome of Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 56(2), 668-676 (2012).
185. Yoneyama K, Honda E, Kogo M et al. Efficacy and safety of prednisolone in patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Adv. Ther. 23(1), 74-91 (2006).
186. Yokokawa J, Kanno Y, Saito H et al. Risk factors associated with relapse of type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Japan. Hepatol. Res. 41(7), 641-646 (2011).
187. Czaja AJ, Ammon HV, Summerskill WH. Clinical features and prognosis of severe chronic active liver disease (CALD) after corticosteroid-induced remission. Gastroenterology 78(3), 518-523 (1980).
188. Hegarty JE, Nouri Aria KT, Portmann B, Eddleston AL, Williams R. Relapse following treatment withdrawal in patients with autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Hepatology 3(5), 685-689 (1983).
189. Czaja AJ, Menon KV, Carpenter HA. Sustained remission after corticosteroid therapy for type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a retrospective analysis. Hepatology 35(4), 890-897 (2002).
190. Migita K, Watanabe Y, Jiuchi Y et al. Evaluation of risk factors for the development of cirrhosis in autoimmune hepatitis: Japanese NHO-AIH prospective study. J. Gastroenterol. 46(Suppl. 1), 56-62 (2011).
191. Nakamura K, Yoneda M, Yokohama S et al. Efficacy of ursodeoxycholic acid in Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 13(5), 490-495 (1998).
192. Ohira H, Takahashi A. Current trends in the diagnosis and treatment of autoimmune hepatitis in Japan. Hepatol. Res. 42(2), 131-138 (2012).
193. Czaja AJ, Carpenter HA, Lindor KD. Ursodeoxycholic acid as adjunctive therapy for problematic type 1 autoimmune hepatitis: a randomized placebo-controlled treatment trial. Hepatology 30(6), 1381-1386 (1999).
194. Yamashiki N, Sugawara Y, Tamura S et al. Outcomes after living donor liver transplantation for acute liver failure in Japan: results of a nationwide survey. Liver Transpl. 18(9), 1069-1077 (2012).
195. Yamashiki N, Sugawara Y, Tamura S et al. Living-donor liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis and autoimmune hepatitis-primary biliary cirrhosis overlap syndrome. Hepatol. Res. 42(10), 1016-1023 (2012).
196. Qiu DK, Ma X. Relationship between human leukocyte antigen-DRB1 and autoimmune hepatitis type I in Chinese patients. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 18(1), 63-67 (2003).
197. Fan L, Tu X, Zhu Y et al. Genetic association of vitamin D receptor polymorphisms with autoimmune hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis in the Chinese. J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 20(2), 249-255 (2005).
198. Fan LY, Tu XQ, Cheng QB et al. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte associated antigen-4 gene polymorphisms confer susceptibility to primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis in Chinese population. World J. Gastroenterol. 10(20), 3056-3059 (2004).
199. Yoshizawa K, Umemura T, Ota M. Genetic background of autoimmune hepatitis in Japan. J. Gastroenterol. 46 Suppl. 1, 42-47 (2011). • The principal susceptibility allele in Japan is DRB1 405, but several other alleles probably promote the disease or protect against it.
200. Seki T, Kiyosawa K, Inoko H, Ota M. Association of autoimmune hepatitis with HLA-Bw54 and DR4 in Japanese patients. Hepatology 12(6), 1300-1304 (1990).
201. Seki T, Ota M, Furuta S et al. HLA class II molecules and autoimmune hepatitis susceptibility in Japanese patients. Gastroenterology 103(3), 1041-1047 (1992).
202. Ota M, Seki T, Kiyosawa K et al. A possible association between basic amino acids of position 13 of DRB1 chains and autoimmune hepatitis. Immunogenetics 36(1), 49-55 (1992).
203. Yoshizawa K, Ota M, Katsuyama Y et al. Genetic analysis of the HLA region of Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 42(4), 578-584 (2005).
204. Hiraide A, Imazeki F, Yokosuka O et al. Fas polymorphisms influence susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 100(6), 1322-1329 (2005).
205. Umemura T, Ota M, Yoshizawa K et al. Association of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen 4 gene polymorphisms with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis in Japanese. Hepatol. Res. 38(7), 689-695 (2008).
206. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Takaki A et al. Human leukocyte antigen DR status and clinical features in Japanese patients with type 1 autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatol. Res. 38(1), 96-102 (2008).
207. Miyamori H, Kato Y, Kobayashi K, Hattori N. HLA antigens in Japanese patients with primary biliary cirrhosis and autoimmune hepatitis. Digestion 26(4), 213-217 (1983).
208. Czaja AJ, Doherty DG, Donaldson PT. Genetic bases of autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 47(10), 2139-2150 (2002).
209. Suzuki Y, Ikeda K, Hirakawa M et al. Association of HLA-DR14 with the treatment response in Japanese patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 55(7), 2070-2076 (2010).
210. Yokosawa S, Yoshizawa K, Ota M et al. A genomewide DNA microsatellite association study of Japanese patients with autoimmune hepatitis type 1. Hepatology 45(2), 384-390 (2007).
211. Zhao Y, Zhang Y, Liu YM et al. Identification of T cell epitopes on soluble liver antigen in Chinese patients with autoimmune hepatitis. Liver Int. 31(5), 721-729 (2011).
212. Miyakawa H, Kawashima Y, Kitazawa E et al. Low frequency of anti-SLA/LP autoantibody in Japanese adult patients with autoimmune liver diseases: analysis with recombinant antigen assay. J. Autoimmun. 21(1), 77-82 (2003).
213. Czaja AJ, Rakela J, Ludwig J. Features reflective of early prognosis in corticosteroid- treated severe autoimmune chronic active hepatitis. Gastroenterology 95(2), 448-453 (1988).
214. Czaja AJ. Advances in the current treatment of autoimmune hepatitis. Dig. Dis. Sci. 57(8), 1996-2010 (2012).
215. Kanzler S, Gerken G, Löhr H, Galle PR, Meyer zum Büschenfelde KH, Lohse AW. Duration of immunosuppressive therapy in autoimmune hepatitis. J. Hepatol. 34(2), 354-355 (2001).
216. Aqel BA, Machicao V, Rosser B, Satyanarayana R, Harnois DM, Dickson RC. Efficacy of tacrolimus in the treatment of steroid refractory autoimmune hepatitis. J. Clin. Gastroenterol. 38(9), 805-809 (2004).
217. Larsen FS, Vainer B, Eefsen M, Bjerring PN, Adel Hansen B. Low-dose tacrolimus ameliorates liver inflammation and fibrosis in steroid refractory autoimmune hepatitis. World J. Gastroenterol. 13(23), 3232-3236 (2007).
218. Tripathi D, Neuberger J. Autoimmune hepatitis and liver transplantation: indications, results, and management of recurrent disease. Semin. Liver Dis. 29(3), 286-296 (2009).
219. Lindor KD, Kowdley KV, Luketic VA et al. High-dose ursodeoxycholic acid for the treatment of primary sclerosing cholangitis. Hepatology 50(3), 808-814 (2009).
220. Sinakos E, Marschall HU, Kowdley KV, Befeler A, Keach J, Lindor K. Bile acid changes after high-dose ursodeoxycholic acid treatment in primary sclerosing cholangitis: relation to disease progression. Hepatology 52(1), 197-203 (2010).
221. Yeoman AD, Westbrook RH, Zen Y et al. Early predictors of corticosteroid treatment failure in icteric presentations of autoimmune hepatitis. Hepatology 53(3), 926-934 (2011).
222. Miyake Y, Iwasaki Y, Kobashi H et al. Autoimmune hepatitis with acute presentation in Japan. Dig. Liver Dis. 42(1), 51-54 (2010).
223. Ferenci P, Fried M, Labrecque D et al.; World Gastroenterology Organisation Guidelines and Publications Committee. World Gastroenterology Organisation Guideline. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC): a global perspective. J. Gastrointestin. Liver Dis. 19(3), 311-317 (2010).
224. Czaja AJ. Diagnosis, pathogenesis, and treatment of autoimmune hepatitis after liver transplantation. Dig. Dis. Sci. 57(9), 2248-2266 (2012).
225. Nair S, Eustace J, Thuluvath PJ. Effect of race on outcome of orthotopic liver transplantation: a cohort study. Lancet 359(9303), 287-293 (2002).
226. Bahar RJ, Yanni GS, Martín MG et al. Orthotopic liver transplantation for autoimmune hepatitis and cryptogenic chronic hepatitis in children. Transplantation 72(5), 829-833 (2001).
227. Bittencourt PL, Palácios SA, Cançado EL et al. Cytotoxic T lymphocyte antigen-4 gene polymorphisms do not confer susceptibility to autoimmune hepatitis types 1 and 2 in Brazil. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 98(7), 1616-1620 (2003).