Prostate cancer: ESMO consensus conference guidelines 2012

Annals of Oncology

Volumn 24, Issue 5, 2013, Pages 1141-1162

  Horwich, A ^a   Hugosson, J ^b   de reijke, T ^c   Wiegel, T ^d   Fizazi, K ^e   Kataja, V ^f   Parker, Chris ^a   Bellmunt, Joaquim ^g   Berthold, Dominik ^h   Bill axelson, Anna ⁱ   Carlsson, Sigrid ^b,j   Daugaard, Gedske ^k   De meerleer, Gert ^l   De reijke, Theo ^c   Dearnaley, David ^a   Fonteyne, Valérie ^l   Gillessen, Silke ^m   Heinrich, Daniel ⁿ   Hugosson, Jonas ^b   Kataja, Vesa ^f   Kwiatkowski, Maciej ^o   Nilsson, Sten ^m   Padhani, Anwar ^p   Papandreou, Christos ^q   Roobol, Monique ^r   Sella, Avishay ^s   Valdagni, Riccardo ^t   Van der kwast, Theo ^u   Verhagen, Paul ^r   Wiegel, Thomas ^d   more..

^a ROYAL MARSDEN HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

^b UNIVERSITY OF GOTHENBURG   (Sweden)

^c ACADEMIC MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^d UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL ULM   (Germany)

^e INSTITUT GUSTAVE ROUSSY   (France)

^f KUOPIO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Finland)

^g HOSPITAL DEL MAR   (Spain)

^h LAUSANNE UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Switzerland)

ⁱ UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

^j MEMORIAL SLOAN KETTERING CANCER CENTER   (United States)

^k University of Copenhagen   (Denmark)

^l GHENT UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Belgium)

^m CANTONAL HOSPITAL ST GALLEN   (Switzerland)

ⁿ AKERSHUS UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

^o CANTONAL HOSPITAL AARAU   (Switzerland)

^p MOUNT VERNON CANCER CENTRE   (United Kingdom)

^q UNIVERSITY OF THESSALY   (Greece)

^r ERASMUS MEDICAL CENTER   (Netherlands)

^s ASSAF HAROFEH MEDICAL CENTER   (Israel)

^t NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE   (Italy)

^u UNIVERSITY HEALTH NETWORK   (Canada)

more..

Author keywords

Consensus; ESMO; Prostate cancer

Indexed keywords

ABIRATERONE; ABIRATERONE ACETATE; ANTIANDROGEN; BICALUTAMIDE; CABAZITAXEL; CLODRONIC ACID; DENOSUMAB; DOCETAXEL; ENZALUTAMIDE; GONADORELIN AGONIST; GONADORELIN ANTAGONIST; GONADORELIN DERIVATIVE; PAMIDRONIC ACID; PLACEBO; PREDNISONE; PROSTATE SPECIFIC ANTIGEN; RADIOISOTOPE; RADIUM 223; SIPULEUCEL T; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; ZOLEDRONIC ACID;

AGE; ANDROGEN DEPRIVATION THERAPY; ARTICLE; BONE METASTASIS; BRACHYTHERAPY; CANCER DIAGNOSIS; CANCER HORMONE THERAPY; CANCER LOCALIZATION; CANCER SCREENING; CANCER STAGING; CASTRATION RESISTANT PROSTATE CANCER; CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS; COMORBIDITY; DIGITAL RECTAL EXAMINATION; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG TREATMENT FAILURE; EUROPEAN SOCIETY FOR MEDICAL ONCOLOGY; EXTERNAL BEAM RADIOTHERAPY; FAMILY HISTORY; HUMAN; HYPOCALCEMIA; IMAGE GUIDED RADIOTHERAPY; INTENSITY MODULATED RADIATION THERAPY; JAW OSTEONECROSIS; LYMPH NODE DISSECTION; MEDICAL SOCIETY; METASTATIC HORMONE NAIVE PROSTATE CANCER; NOMOGRAM; PELVIS LYMPH NODE; PRACTICE GUIDELINE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PROSTATE BIOPSY; PROSTATE CANCER; PROSTATECTOMY; RADIATION DOSE; SWITZERLAND; SYMPTOM; TRANSRECTAL ULTRASONOGRAPHY;

EID: 84877101072     PISSN: 09237534     EISSN: 15698041     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mds624     Document Type: Article

References (202)

1. Ferlay J, Parkin DM, Steliarova-Foucher E. Estimates of cancer incidence and mortality in Europe in 2008. Eur J Cancer 2010; 46: 765-781.
2. Pavlidis N, Stahel R, Hansen H et al. Fourteen years of evolution of ESMO Guidelines: from the minimum recommendations to the Consensus Conferencederived guidelines. Ann Oncol 2011; 22(Suppl 6): vi7-vi11.
3. Dykewicz CA. Summary of the guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among hematopoietic stem cell transplant ftrrecipients. Clin Infect Dis 2001; 33: 139-144.
4. Horwich A, Parker C, Bangma C et al. Prostate cancer: ESMO clinical practice guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Ann Oncol 2010; 21(Suppl 5): v129-133.
5. Gomella LG, Liu XS, Trabulsi EJ et al. Screening for prostate cancer: the current evidence and guidelines controversy. Can J Urol 2011; 18: 5875-5883.
6. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: recommendation statement. Oct 7, 2011; http://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/uspstf12/prostate/prostateart.htm (19 November 2012, date last accessed).
7. Chou R, Croswell J, Dana T et al. Screening for prostate cancer: a review of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 2011; 155: 762-771.
8. McNaughton-Collins MF, Barry MJ. One man at a time-resolving the PSA controversy. N Engl J Med 2011; 365: 1951-1953.
9. Brawley OW, Gansler T. Introducing the 2010 American Cancer Society prostate cancer screening guideline. CA Cancer J Clin 2010; 60: 68-69.
10. Greene KL, Albertsen PC, Babaian RJ et al. Prostate specific antigen best practice statement: 2009 update. J Urol 2009; 182: 2232-2241.
11. Abrahamsson PA, Artibani W, Chapple CR et al. European Association of Urology position statement on screening for prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2009; 56: 270-271.
12. Labrie F, Candas B, Cusan L et al. Screening decreases prostate cancer mortality: 11-year follow-up of the 1988 Quebec prospective randomized controlled trial. Prostate 2004; 59: 311-318.
13. Kjellman A, Akre O, Norming U et al. 15-year followup of a population based prostate cancer screening study. J Urol 2009; 181: 1615-1621.
14. Sandblom G, Varenhorst E, Rosell J et al. Randomised prostate cancer screening trial: 20 year follow-up. BMJ 2011; 342: d1539.
15. Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL III et al. Mortality results from a randomized prostate-cancer screening trial. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 1310-1319.
16. Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL III et al. Prostate Cancer Screening in the Randomized Prostate, Lung, Colorectal, and Ovarian Cancer Screening Trial: mortality results after 13 years of follow-up. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104: 125-132.
17. Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ et al. Screening and prostate-cancer mortality in a randomized European study. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 1320-1328.
18. Schröder FH, Hugosson J, Roobol MJ et al. Prostate-cancer mortality at 11 years of follow-up. N Engl J Med 2012; 366: 981-990.
19. Hugosson J, Carlsson S, Aus G et al. Mortality results from the Goteborg randomised population-based prostate-cancer screening trial. Lancet Oncol 2010; 11: 725-732.
20. Lumen N, Fonteyne V, De Meerleert G et al. Population screening for prostate cancer: an overview of available studies and meta-analysis. Int J Urol 2012; 19: 100-108.
21. Carlsson S, Aus G, Wessman C et al. Anxiety associated with prostate cancer screening with special reference to men with a positive screening test (elevated PSA)-Results from a prospective, population-based, randomised study. Eur J Cancer 2007; 43: 2109-2116.
22. Loeb S, van den Heuvel S, Zhu X et al. Infectious complications and hospital admissions after prostate biopsy in a European randomized trial. Eur Urol 2012; 61: 1110-1114.
23. Thompson IM, Pauler DK, Goodman PJ et al. Prevalence of prostate cancer among men with a prostate-specific antigen level =4.0 ng per milliliter. N Engl J Med 2004; 350: 2239-2246.
24. Draisma G, Boer R, Otto SJ et al. Lead times and overdetection due to prostate-specific antigen screening: estimates from the European Randomized Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer. JNCI 2003; 95: 868-878.
25. Etzioni R, Penson DF, Legler JM et al. Overdiagnosis due to prostate-specific antigen screening: lessons from U.S. prostate cancer incidence trends. J Natl Cancer Inst 2002; 94: 981-990.
26. Ulmert D, O'Brien MF, Bjartell AS et al. Prostate kallikrein markers in diagnosis, risk stratification and prognosis. Nat Rev Urol 2009; 6: 384-391.
27. Roobol MJ. Prostate cancer biomarkers to improve risk stratification: is our knowledge of prostate cancer sufficient to spare prostate biopsies safely?. Eur Urol 2011; 60: 223-225.
28. Roobol MJ, Steyerberg EW, Kranse R et al. A risk-based strategy improves prostate-specific antigen-driven detection of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2010; 57: 79-85.
29. Vickers AJ, Cronin AM, Aus G et al. A panel of kallikrein markers can reduce unnecessary biopsy for prostate cancer: data from the European randomized study of prostate cancer screening in Göteborg, Sweden. BMC Med 2008; 6: 19.
30. Vickers AJ, Till C, Tangen CM et al. An empirical evaluation of guidelines on prostate-specific antigen velocity in prostate cancer detection. JNCI 2011; 103: 462-469.
31. Gosselaar C, Roobol MJ, van den Bergh RC et al. Digital rectal examination and the diagnosis of prostate cancer-a study based on 8 years and three screenings within the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer (ERSPC), Rotterdam. Eur Urol 2009; 55: 139-146.
32. Hugosson J, Aus G, Lilja H et al. Results of a randomized, population-based study of biennial screening using serum prostate-specific antigen measurement to detect prostate carcinoma. Cancer 2004; 100: 1397-1405.
33. Gosselaar C, Roobol MJ, Roemeling S et al. The role of the digital rectal examination in subsequent screening visits in the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer (ERSPC), Rotterdam. Eur Urol 2008; 54: 581-588.
34. Frånlund M, Carlsson S, Stranne J et al. The absence of voiding symptoms in men with a prostate-specific antigen (PSA) concentration of =3.0 ng/ml is an independent risk factor for prostate cancer: results from the Gothenburg randomized screening trial. BJU Int 2012; 110: 638-643.
35. Roobol MJ, Schröder FH, Hugosson J et al. Importance of prostate volume in the European Randomised Study of Screening for Prostate Cancer (ERSPC) risk calculators: results from the prostate biopsy collaborative group. World J Urol 2012; 30: 149-155.
36. Gustafsson O, Norming U, Almgård LE et al. Diagnostic methods in the detection of prostate cancer: a study of a randomly selected population of 2,400 men. J Urol 1992; 148: 1827-1831.
37. Madersbacher S, Alcaraz A, Emberton M et al. The influence of family history on prostate cancer risk: implications for clinical management. BJU Int 2011; 107: 716-721.
38. Mäkinen T, Tammela TL, Stenman UH et al. Family history and prostate cancer screening with prostate-specific antigen. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 2658-2663.
39. Sciarra A, Barentsz J, Bjartell A et al. Advances in magnetic resonance imaging: how they are changing the management of prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2011; 59: 962-977.
40. Barentsz JO, Richenberg J, Clements R et al. ESUR prostate MR guidelines 2012. Eur Radiol 2012; 22: 746-757.
41. Dickinson L, Ahmed HU, Allen C et al. Magnetic resonance imaging for the detection, localisation, and characterisation of prostate cancer: recommendations from a European consensus meeting. Eur Urol 2011; 59: 477-494.
42. Hoeks CM, Schouten MG, Bomers JG et al. Three-tesla magnetic resonanceguided prostate biopsy in men with increased prostate-specific antigen and repeated, negative, random, systematic, transrectal ultrasound biopsies: detection of clinically significant prostate cancers. Eur Urol 2012; 62(5): 902-909.
43. Thompson IM, Ankerst DP, Chi C et al. Assessing prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2006; 98: 529.
44. Kranse R, Roobol M, Schröder FH. A graphical device to represent the outcomes of a logistic regression analysis. Prostate 2008; 68: 1674-1680.
45. Steyerberg EW, Roobol MJ, Kattan MW et al. Prediction of indolent prostate cancer: validation and updating of a prognostic nomogram. J Urol 2007; 177: 107-112.
46. Schröder F, Kattan MW. The comparability of models for predicting the risk of a positive prostate biopsy with prostate-specific antigen alone: a systematic review. Eur Urol 2008; 54: 274-290.
47. Ankerst DP, Boeck A, Freedland SJ et al. Evaluating the PCPT risk calculator in ten international biopsy cohorts: results from the prostate biopsy collaborative group. World J Urol 2012; 30: 181-187.
48. Joslyn SA, Konety BR. Impact of extent of lymphadenectomy on survival after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer. Urology 2006; 68: 121-125.
49. Da Pozzo LF, Cozzarini C, Briganti A et al. Long-term follow-up of patients with prostate cancer and nodal metastasis treated by pelvic lymphadenopathy and radical prostatectomy: the positive impact of adjuvant radiotherapy. Eur Urol 2009; 55: 1003-1011.
50. Heidenreich A, Varga Z, Von Knobloch R. Extended pelvic lymphadenectomy in patients undergoing radical prostatectomy high incidence of lymph node metastasis. J Urol 2002; 167: 1681-1686.
51. Clark T, Parekh DJ, Cookson MS et al. Randomized prospective evaluation of extended versus limited lymph node dissection in patients with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 2003; 169: 145-148.
52. Musch M, Klevecka V, Roggenbuck U et al. Complications of pelvic lymphadenectomy in 1,380 patients undergoing radical retropubic prostatectomy between 1993 and 2006. J Urol 2008; 179: 923-929.
53. Hövels AM, Heesakkers RA, Adang EM et al. The diagnostic accuracy of CT and MRI in the staging of pelvic lymph nodes in patients with prostate cancer: a meta-analysis. Clin Radiol 2008; 63: 387-395.
54. Briganti A, Larcher A, Abdollah F et al. Updated nomogram predicting lymph node invasion in patients with prostate cancer undergoing extended pelvic lymph node dissection: the essential importance of percentage of positive cores. Eur Urol 2012; 61: 480-487.
55. Budiharto T, Joniau S, Lerut E et al. Prospective evaluation of 11C-choline positron emission tomography/computed tomography and diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging for the nodal staging of prostate cancer with a high risk of lymph node metastases. Eur Urol 2011; 60: 125-130.
56. Makarov DV, Trock BJ, Humphreys EB et al. Updated nomogram to predict pathologic stage of prostate cancer given prostate-specific antigen level, clinical stage and biopsy Gleason score (Partin tables) based on cases from 2000 to 2005. Urology 2007; 69: 1095-1101.
57. Partin AW, Mangold LA, Lamm DM et al. Contemporary update of the prostate cancer staging nomograms (Partin tables) for the new millennium. Urology 2001; 58: 843-848.
58. Cagiannos I, Karakiewicz P, Eastham JA et al. A preoperative nomogram identifying decreased risk of positive pelvic lymph nodes in patients with prostate cancer. J Urol 2003; 170: 1798-1803.
59. Haese A, Epstein JI, Huland H et al. Validation of a biopsy-based pathologic algorithm for predicting lymph node metastasis in patients with clinically localized prostate carcinoma. Cancer 2002; 95: 1016-1021.
60. Freedland SJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA et al. Death in patients with recurrent prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy: prostate-specific antigen doubling time subgroups and their associated contributions to all-cause mortality. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 1765-1771.
61. Cooperberg MR, Carroll PR, Klotz L. Active surveillance for prostate cancer: progress and promise. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 3669-3676.
62. Ng MK, Van As N, Thomas K et al. Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) kinetics in untreated, localized prostate cancer: PSA velocity vs PSA doubling time. BJU Int 2009; 103: 872-876.
63. Studer UE, Whelan P, Albrecht W et al. Immediate or deferred androgen deprivation for patients with prostate cancer not suitable for local treatment with curative intent: European organisation for research and treatment of cancer (EORTC) trial 30891. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 1868-1876.
64. Studer UE, Collette L, Whelan P et al. Using PSA to guide timing of androgen deprivation in patients with T0-4 N0-2 M0 prostate cancer not suitable for local curative treatment (EORTC 30891). Eur Urol 2008; 53: 941-949.
65. Freedland SJ, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA et al. Risk of prostate cancerspecific mortality following biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2005; 294: 433-439.
66. Nelson JB, Lepor H. Prostate cancer: radical prostatectomy. Urol Clin North Am 2003; 30: 703-723.
67. Roach M III, Hanks G, Thames H, Jr et al. Defining biochemical failure following radiotherapy with or without hormonal therapy in men with clinically localized prostate cancer: recommendations of the RTOG-ASTRO phoenix consensus conference. J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2006; 65: 965-974.
68. Moul JW. Prostate specific antigen only progression of prostate cancer. J Urol 2000; 163: 1632-1642.
69. Stephenson AJ, Scardino PT, Kattan MW et al. Predicting the outcome of salvage radiation therapy for recurrent prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 2035-2041.
70. Han M, Partin AW, Pound CR et al. Long-term biochemical disease-free and cancer-specific survival following anatomic radical retropubic prostatectomy: the 15-year Johns Hopkins experience. Urol Clin North Am 2001; 28: 555-565.
71. Slovin SF, Wilton AS, Heller G et al. Time to detectable metastatic disease in patients with rising prostate-specific antigen values following surgery or radiation therapy. Clin Cancer Res 2005; 11: 8669-8673.
72. Cox JD, Gallagher MJ, Hammond EH et al. Consensus statements on radiation therapy of prostate cancer: guidelines for prostate re-biopsy after radiation and for radiation therapy with rising prostate-specific antigen levels after radical prostatectomy. American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology Consensus Panel. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 1155.
73. MacDonald OK, Schild SE, Vora S et al. Salvage radiotherapy for men with isolated rising PSA or local palpable recurrence after radical prostatectomy: do outcomes differ?. Urology 2004; 64: 760-764.
74. Siegmann A, Bottke D, Faehndrich J et al. Dose escalation for patients with decreasing PSA during radiotherapy for elevated PSA after radical prostatectomy improves biochemical progression-free survival: results of a retrospective study. Strahlenther Onkol 2011; 187: 467-472.
75. Trock BJ, Han M, Freedland SJ et al. Prostate cancer-specific survival following salvage radiotherapy vs observation in men with biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2008; 299: 2760-2769.
76. Wiegel T, Lohm G, Bottke D et al. Achieving an undetectable PSA after radiotherapy for biochemical progression after radical prostatectomy is an independent predictor of biochemical outcome-results of a retrospective study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 73: 1009-1016.
77. Heidenreich A, Richter S, Thüer D et al. Prognostic parameters, complications, and oncologic and functional outcome of salvage radical prostatectomy for locally recurrent prostate cancer after 21st-century radiotherapy. Eur Urol 2010; 57: 437-443.
78. Chade DC, Shariat SF, Cronin AM et al. Salvage radical prostatectomy for radiation-recurrent prostate cancer: a multi-institutional collaboration. Eur Urol 2011; 60(2): 205-210.
79. Makarov DV, Humphreys EB, Mangold LA et al. The natural history of men treated with deferred androgen deprivation therapy in whom metastatic prostate cancer developed following radical prostatectomy. J Urol 2008; 179:156-161.
80. Siddiqui SA, Boorjian SA, Inman B et al. Timing of androgen deprivation therapy and its impact on survival after radical prostatectomy: a matched cohort study. J Urol 2008; 179: 1830-1837.
81. Moul JW, Wu H, Sun L et al. Early versus delayed hormonal therapy for prostate antigen only recurrence of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 2004; 171: 1141-1147.
82. Isbarn H, Boccon-Gibod L, Carroll PR et al. Androgen deprivation therapy for the treatment of prostate cancer: consider both benefits and risks. Eur Urol 2009; 55: 62-75.
83. Smith MR, Boyce SP, Moyneur E et al. Risk of clinical fractures after gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 2006; 175: 136-139.
84. Smith MR. Changes in fat and lean body mass during androgen-deprivation therapy for prostate cancer. Urology 2004; 63: 742-745.
85. Braga-Basaria M, Dobs AS, Muller DC et al. Metabolic syndrome in men with prostate cancer undergoing long-term androgen-deprivation therapy. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 3979-3983.
86. Efstathiou JA, Bae K, Shipley WU et al. Cardiovascular mortality and duration of androgen deprivation for locally advanced prostate cancer: analysis of RTOG 92-02. Eur Urol 2008; 54: 816-823.
87. Punnen S, Cooperberg MR, Sadetsky N et al. Androgen deprivation therapy and cardiovascular risk. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 3510-3516.
88. Alibhai SM. Cardiovascular toxicity of androgen deprivation therapy: a new door opens. J Clin Oncol 2011; 29: 3500-3502.
89. Abrahamsson PA. Potential benefits of intermittent androgen suppression therapy in the treatment of prostate cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Eur Urol 2010; 57: 49-59.
90. Conti PD, Atallah AN, Arruda H et al. Intermittent versus continuous androgen suppression for prostatic cancer. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2007; 4: CD005009.
91. Crook JM, O'Callaghan CJ, Duncan G et al. Intermittent androgen suppression for rising PSA level after radiotherapy. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(10): 895-903.
92. Tunn UW, Kurek R, Kienle E. Intermittent is as effective as continuous androgen deprivation in patients with PSA-relapse after radical prostatectomy (Abstract 1458). J Urol 2004; 171: 384.
93. Sanchez-Salas R, Prapotnich D, Secin F et al. Intermittent androgen deprivation as secondary therapy for biochemical recurrence of localized prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2011; 10(Suppl): 91-92.
94. Calais da Silva FE, Bono AV, Whelan P et al. Intermittent androgen deprivation for locally advanced and metastatic prostate cancer: results from a randomised phase 3 study of the South European Uroncological Group. Eur Urol 2009; 55: 1269-1277.
95. Salonen AJ, Taari K, Ala-Opas M et al. The FinnProstate Study VII: intermittent versus continuous androgen deprivation in patients with advanced prostate cancer. J Urol 2012; 187: 2074-2081.
96. Mottet N, Van Damme J, Loulidi S et al. Intermittent hormonal therapy in the treatment of metastatic prostate cancer: a randomized trial. BJU Int 2012. doi: 10.1111/j.1464-410X.2012.11120.x.
97. van den Bergh RC, Roemeling S, Roobol MJ et al. Outcomes of men with screen-detected prostate cancer eligible for active surveillance who were managed expectantly. Eur Urol 2009; 55: 1-8.
98. Pilepich MV, Winter K, Lawton CA et al. Androgen suppression adjuvant to definitive radiotherapy in prostate carcinoma-long-term results of phase III RTOG 85-31. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2005; 61: 1285-1290.
99. Bolla M, Collette L, Blank L et al. Long-term results with immediate androgen suppression and external irradiation in patients with locally advanced prostate cancer (an EORTC study): a phase III randomised trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 103-106.
100. Hanks GE, Pajak TF, Porter A et al. Radiation Therapy Oncology Group. Phase III trial of long-term adjuvant androgen deprivation after neoadjuvant hormonal cytoreduction and radiotherapy in locally advanced carcinoma of the prostate: the Radiation Therapy Oncology Group Protocol 92-02. J Clin Oncol 2003; 21: 3972-3978.
101. Widmark A, Klepp O, Solberg A et al. Scandinavian Prostate Cancer Group Study 7; Swedish Association for Urological Oncology 3. Endocrine treatment, with or without radiotherapy, in locally advanced prostate cancer (SPCG-7/SFUO-3): an open randomised phase III trial. Lancet 2009; 373: 301-308.
102. Warde P, Mason M, Ding K et al. Combined androgen deprivation therapy and radiation therapy for locally advanced prostate cancer: a randomised, phase 3 trial. Lancet 2011; 378: 2104-2111.
103. Krambeck AE, DiMarco DS, Rangel LJ et al. Radical prostatectomy for prostatic adenocarcinoma: a matched comparison of open retropubic and robot-assisted techniques. BJU Int 2009; 103: 448-453.
104. Magheli A, Gonzalgo ML, Su LM et al. Impact of surgical technique (open vs laparoscopic robot-assisted vs robot-assisted) on pathological and biochemical outcomes following radical prostatectomy: an analysis using propensity score matching. BJU Int 2011; 107: 1956-1962.
105. Hu JC, Gu X, Lipsitz SR et al. Comparative effectiveness of minimally invasive vs open radical prostatectomy. JAMA 2009; 302: 1557-1564.
106. Bill-Axelson A, Holmberg L, Ruutu M et al. Radical prostatectomy versus watchful waiting in early prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1708-1716.
107. Wilt TJ, Brawer MK, Jones KM et al. Radical prostatectomy versus observation for localized prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2012; 367: 203-213.
108. Lane JA, Hamdy FC, Martin RM et al. Latest results from the UK trials evaluating prostate cancer screening and treatment: the CAP and ProtecT studies. Eur J Cancer 2010; 46: 3095-4101.
109. Johansson E, Steineck G, Holmberg L et al. Long-term quality-of-life outcomes after radical prostatectomy or watchful waiting: the Scandinavian Prostate Cancer Group-4 randomised trial. Lancet Oncol 2011; 12: 891-899.
110. Cox J, Amling CL. Current decision-making in prostate cancer therapy. Curr Opin Urol 2008; 18: 275-278.
111. Al-Mamgani A, van Putten WL, van der Wielen GJ et al. Dose escalation and quality of life in patients with localized prostate cancer treated with radiotherapy: long-term results of the Dutch randomized dose-escalation trial (CKTO 96-10 trial). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2011; 79: 1004-1012.
112. Kuban DA, Tucker SL, Dong L et al. Long-term results of the M. D. Anderson randomized dose-escalation trial for prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 70: 67-74.
113. Dearnaley DP, Hall E, Lawrence D et al. Phase III pilot study of dose escalation using conformal radiotherapy in prostate cancer: PSA control and side effects. Br J Cancer 2005; 92: 488-498.
114. Dearnaley DP, Sydes MR, Graham JD et al. Escalated-dose versus standard-dose conformal radiotherapy in prostate cancer: first results from the MRC RT01 randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncol 2007; 8: 475-487.
115. Zietman AL, Bae K, Slater JD et al. Randomized trial comparing conventionaldose with high-dose conformal radiation therapy in early-stage adenocarcinoma of the prostate: long-term results from proton radiation oncology group/American college of radiology 95-09. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28: 1106-1111.
116. Pollack A, Zagars GK, Starkschall G et al. Prostate cancer radiation dose response: results of the M. D. Anderson phase III randomized trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 53: 1097-1105.
117. Zietman AL, DeSilvio ML, Slater JD et al. Comparison of conventional-dose vs high-dose conformal radiation therapy in clinically localized adenocarcinoma of the prostate: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2005; 294: 1233-1239.
118. Peeters ST, Heemsbergen WD, Koper PC et al. Dose-response in radiotherapy for localized prostate cancer: results of the Dutch multicenter randomized phase III trial comparing 68 Gy of radiotherapy with 78 Gy. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 1990-19906.
119. Coen JJ, Zietman AL, Thakral H et al. Radical radiation for localized prostate cancer: local persistence of disease results in a late wave of metastases. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 3199-3205.
120. Zelefsky MJ, Yamada Y, Fuks Z et al. Long-term results of conformal radiotherapy for prostate cancer: impact of dose escalation on biochemical tumor control and distant metastases-free survival outcomes. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 71: 1028-1033.
121. Fonteyne V, Lumen N, Villeirs G et al. Clinical results after high-dose intensitymodulated radiotherapy for high-risk prostate cancer. Adv Urol 2012; 2012: 368528.
122. Dearnaley D, Syndikus I, Sumo G et al. Conventional versus hypofractionated high-dose intensity-modulated radiotherapy for prostate cancer: preliminary safety results from the CHHiP randomised controlled trial. Lancet Oncology 2012; 13: 43-54.
123. King CR, Spiotto MT. Improved outcomes with higher doses for salvage radiotherapy after prostatectomy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 71: 23-27.
124. King CR, Kapp DS. Radiotherapy after prostatectomy: is the evidence for dose escalation out there?. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2008; 71: 346-350.
125. Cozzarini C, Montorsi F, Fiorino C et al. Need for high radiation dose (=70 gy) in early postoperative irradiation after radical prostatectomy: a single-institution analysis of 334 high-risk, node-negative patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 75: 966-974.
126. Siegmann A, Bottke D, Faehndrich J et al. Salvage radiotherapy after prostatectomy-when is the best time to treat?. Radiother Oncol 2012; 103: 239-243.
127. Bernard JR Jr, Buskirk SJ, Heckman MG et al. Salvage radiotherapy for rising prostate-specific antigen levels after radical prostatectomy for prostate cancer: dose-response analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010; 76: 735-740.
128. Bolla M, Van Tienhoven G, Warde P et al. External irradiation with or without long-term androgen suppression for prostate cancer with high metastatic risk: 10-year results of an EORTC randomised study. Lancet Oncol 2010; 11: 1066-1073.
129. Bolla M, de Reijke TM, Van Tienhoven G et al. Duration of androgen suppression in the treatment of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2009; 360: 2516-2527.
130. Horwitz EM, Bae K, Hanks GE et al. Ten-year follow-up of radiation therapy oncology group protocol 92-02: a phase III trial of the duration of elective androgen deprivation in locally advanced prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 2497-2504.
131. Iversen P, McLeod DG, See WA et al. Antiandrogen monotherapy in patients with localized or locally advanced prostate cancer: final results from the bicalutamide Early Prostate Cancer programme at a medium follow-up of 9.7 years. BJU Int 2010; 105: 1074-1081.
132. Parker C, Sydes MR, Catton C et al. Radiotherapy and androgen deprivation in combination after local surgery (RADICALS): a new Medical Research Council/National Cancer Institute of Canada phase III trial of adjuvant treatment after radical prostatectomy. BJU Int 2007; 99: 1376-1379.
133. Choo R, Danjoux C, Gardner S et al. Efficacy of salvage radiotherapy plus 2-year androgen suppression for postradical prostatectomy patients with PSA relapse. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 75: 983-989.
134. Soto DE, Passarelli MN, Daignault S et al. Concurrent androgen deprivation therapy during salvage prostate radiotherapy improves treatment outcomes in high risk patients. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2012; 82: 1227-1232.
135. Ost P, Lumen N, Goessaert AS et al. High-dose salvage intensity-modulated radiotherapy with or without androgen deprivation after radical prostatectomy for rising or persisting prostate-specific antigen: 5-year results. Eur Urol 2011; 60: 842-849.
136. Shipley WU, Hunt D, Lukka H et al. Initial report of RTOG 9601: a phase III trial in prostate cancer: anti-androgen therapy (AAT) with bicalutamide during and after radiation therapy (RT) improves freedom from progression and reduces the incidence of metastatic disease in patients following radical prostatectomy (RP) with pT2-3, N0 disease, and elevated PSA levels. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010; 78(Suppl): S27.
137. Zelefsky MJ, Kuban DA, Levy LB et al. Multi-institutional analysis of long-term outcome for stages T1-T2 prostate cancer treated with permanent seed implantation. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2007; 67: 327-333.
138. Galalae RM, Kovács G, Schultze J et al. Long-term outcome after elective irradiation on the pelvic lymphatics and local dose escalation using high-doserate brachytherapy for locally advanced prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2002; 52: 81-90.
139. Hoskin PJ, Motohashi K, Brownes P et al. High dose rate brachytherapy in combination with external beam radiotherapy in the radical treatment of prostate cancer: initial results of a randomised phase three trial. Radiother Oncol 2007; 84: 114-120.
140. Deutsch I, Zelefsky MJ, Zhang Z et al. Comparison of PSA relapse-free survival in patients treated with ultra-high-dose IMRT versus combination HDR brachytherapy and IMRT. Brachytherapy 2010; 9: 313-318.
141. Wong WW, Vora SA, Schild SE et al. Radiation dose escalation for localized prostate cancer: intensity-modulated radiotherapy versus permanent transperineal brachytherapy. Cancer 2009; 115: 5596-5606.
142. Viani GA, Stefano EJ, Afonso SL. Higher-than-conventional radiation doses in localized prostate cancer treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2009; 74: 1405-1418.
143. Michalski JM, Bae K, Roach M et al. Long-term toxicity following 3D conformal radiation therapy for prostate cancer from the RTOG 9406 phase I/II dose escalation study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010; 76: 14-22.
144. Ward JF, Slezak JM, Blute ML et al. Radical prostatectomy for clinically advanced (cT3) prostate cancer since the advent of prostate-specific antigen testing: 15-year outcome. BJU Int 2005; 95: 751-756.
145. Berglund RK, Jones JS, Ulchaker JC et al. Radical prostatectomy as primary treatment modality for locally advanced prostate cancer: a prospective analysis. Urology 2006; 67: 1253-1256.
146. Carver BS, Bianco FJ, Jr, Scardino PT et al. Long-term outcome following radical prostatectomy in men with clinical stage T3 prostate cancer. J Urol 2006; 176: 564-568.
147. Hsu CY, Joniau S, Oyen R et al. Outcome of surgery for clinical unilateral T3a prostate cancer: a single-institution experience. Eur Urol 2007; 51: 121-128.
148. Van Poppel H, Joniau S. An analysis of radical prostatectomy in advanced stage and high-grade prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2008; 53: 253-259.
149. Chandra RV, Heinze S, Dowling R et al. Endorectal magnetic resonance imaging staging of prostate cancer. ANZ J Surg 2007; 77: 860-865.
150. Masterson TA, Bianco FJ, Jr, Vickers AJ et al. The association between total and positive lymph node counts, and disease progression in clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 2006; 175: 1320-1324.
151. Siddiqui SA, Boorjian SA, Blute ML et al. Impact of adjuvant androgen deprivation therapy after radical prostatectomy on the survival of patients with pathological T3b prostate cancer. BJU Int 2011; 107: 383-388.
152. Spahn M, Weiss C, Bader P et al. Long-term outcome of patients with high-risk prostate cancer following radical prostatectomy and stage-dependent adjuvant androgen deprivation. Urol Int 2010; 84: 164-173.
153. Shelley MD, Kumar S, Coles B et al. Adjuvant hormone therapy for localised and locally advanced prostate carcinoma: a systematic review and metaanalysis of randomised trials. Cancer Treat Rev 2009; 35: 540-546.
154. Bolla M, van Poppel H, Collette L et al. Postoperative radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy: a randomised controlled trial (EORTC trial 22911). Lancet 2005; 366: 572-578.
155. Wiegel T, Bottke D, Steiner U et al. Phase III postoperative adjuvant radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy compared with radical prostatectomy alone in pT3 prostate cancer with postoperative undetectable prostate-specific antigen: ARO 96-02/AUO AP 09/95. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 2924-2930.
156. Thompson IM, Tangen CM, Paradelo J et al. Adjuvant radiotherapy for pathological T3N0M0 prostate cancer significantly reduces risk of metastases and improves survival: long-term followup of a randomized clinical trial. J Urol 2009; 181: 956-962.
157. Bolla M, Van Poppel H, Tombal B et al. 10-year results of adjuvant radiotherapy after radical prostatectomy in pT3N0 prostate cancer (EORTC 22911). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 2010; 78(Suppl): s29.
158. Van der Kwast TH, Bolla M, Van Poppel H et al. Identification of patients with prostate cancer who benefit from immediate postoperative radiotherapy: EORTC 22911. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 4178-4186.
159. Stephenson AJ, Wood DP, Kattan MW et al. Location, extent and number of positive surgical margins do not improve accuracy of predicting prostate cancer recurrence after radical prostatectomy. J Urol 2009; 182: 1357-1363.
160. Savdie R, Horvath LG, Benito RP et al. High Gleason grade carcinoma at a positive surgical margin predicts biochemical failure after radical prostatectomy and may guide adjuvant radiotherapy. BJU Int 2012; 109: 1794-1800.
161. Cao D, Kibel AS, Gao F et al. The Gleason score of tumor at the margin in radical prostatectomy is predictive of biochemical recurrence. Am J Surg Pathol 2010; 34: 994-1001.
162. Brimo F, Partin AW, Epstein JI. Tumor grade at margins of resection in radical prostatectomy specimens is an independent predictor of prognosis. Urology 2010; 76: 1206-1209.
163. Engel J, Bastian PJ, Baur H et al. Survival benefit of radical prostatectomy in lymph node-positive patients with prostate cancer. Eur Urol 2010; 57: 754-761.
164. Schröder FH, Kurth KH, Fossa SD et al. Early versus delayed endocrine treatment of T2-T3 pN1-3 M0 prostate cancer without local treatment of the primary tumour: final results of European Organisation for the Research and Treatment of Cancer protocol 30846 after 13 years of follow-up (a randomised controlled trial). Eur Urol 2009; 55: 14-22.
165. Messing EM, Manola J, Yao J et al. Immediate versus deferred androgen deprivation treatment in patients with node-positive prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy and pelvic lymphadenectomy. Lancet Oncol 2006; 7: 472-479.
166. Verhagen PC, Schröder FH, Collette L et al. Does local treatment of the prostate in advanced and/or lymph node metastatic disease improve efficacy of androgen-deprivation therapy? A systematic review. Eur Urol 2010; 58: 261-269.
167. Briganti A, Karnes RJ, Da Pozzo LF et al. Combination of adjuvant hormonal and radiation therapy significantly prolongs survival of patients with pT2-4 pN+ prostate cancer: results of a matched analysis. Eur Urol 2011; 59: 832-840.
168. Smith MR, Kabbinavar F, Saad F et al. Natural history of rising serum prostatespecific antigen in men with castrate nonmetastatic prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23: 2918-2925.
169. Lecouvet FE, Geukens D, Stainier A et al. Magnetic resonance imaging of the axial skeleton for detecting bone metastases in patients with high-risk prostate cancer: diagnostic and cost-effectiveness and comparison with current detection strategies. J Clin Oncol 2007; 25: 3281-3287.
170. Smith MR, Saad F, Coleman R et al. Denosumab and bone-metastasis-free survival in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer: results of a phase 3, randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2012; 379: 39-46.
171. Medical Research Council Prostate Cancer Working Party Investigators Group. Immediate versus deferred treatment for advanced prostatic cancer: initial results of the Medical Research Council Trial. Br J Urol 1997; 79: 235-246.
172. Kaisary AV, Tyrrell CJ, Peeling WB et al. Comparison of LHRH analogue (Zoladex) with orchiectomy in patients with metastatic prostatic carcinoma. Br J Urol 1991; 67: 502-508.
173. Vogelzang NJ, Chodak GW, Soloway MS et al. Goserelin versus orchiectomy in the treatment of advanced prostate cancer: final results of a randomized trial. Zoladex Prostate Study Group. Urology 1995; 46: 220-226.
174. Klotz L, Boccon-Gibod L, Shore ND et al. The efficacy and safety of degarelix: a 12-month, comparative, randomized, open-label, parallel-group phase III study in patients with prostate cancer. BJU Int 2008; 102: 1531-1538.
175. Eisenberger MA, Blumenstein BA, Crawford ED et al. Bilateral orchiectomy with or without flutamide for metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 1998; 8: 1036-1042.
176. Prostate Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group. Maximum androgen blockade in advanced prostate cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 2000; 355: 1491-1498.
177. Akaza H, Yamaguchi A, Matsuda T et al. Superior anti-tumor efficacy of bicalutamide 80 mg in combination with a luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone (LHRH) agonist versus LHRH agonist monotherapy as first-line treatment for advanced prostate cancer: interim results of a randomized study in Japanese patients. J Clin Oncol 2004; 34: 20-28.
178. Tyrrell CJ, Kaisary AV, Iversen P et al. A randomised comparison of 'Casodex' (bicalutamide) 150 mg monotherapy versus castration in the treatment of metastatic and locally advanced prostate cancer. Eur Urol 1998; 33: 447-456.
179. Miller K, Steiner U, Lingnau A et al. Randomized prospective study of intermittent versus continuous androgen suppression in advanced prostate cancer. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2008; 25: 238s (Abstr 5015).
180. Millikan RE, Wen S, Pagliaro LC et al. Phase III trial of androgen ablation with or without three cycles of systemic chemotherapy for advanced prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 5936-5942.
181. Dearnaley DP, Mason MD, Parmar MK et al. Adjuvant therapy with oral sodium clodronate in locally advanced and metastatic prostate cancer: long-term overall survival results from the MRC PR04 and PR05 randomised controlled trials. Lancet Oncol 2009; 10: 872-876.
182. Tannock IF, de Wit R, Berry WR et al. Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1502-1512.
183. Petrylak DP, Tangen CM, Hussain MH et al. Docetaxel and estramustine compared with mitoxantrone and prednisone for advanced refractory prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1513-1520.
184. Berthold DR, Pond GR, Soban F et al. Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer: updated survival in the TAX 327 study. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 242-245.
185. Kantoff PW, Higano CS, Shore ND et al. Sipuleucel-T immunotherapy for castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2010; 363: 411-422.
186. Small EJ, Schellhammer PF, Higano CS et al. Placebo-controlled phase III trial of immunologic therapy with sipuleucel-T (APC8015) in patients with metastatic, asymptomatic hormone refractory prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 2006; 24: 3089-3094.
187. Huber ML, Haynes L, Parker C et al. Interdisciplinary critique of sipuleucel-T as immunotherapy in castration-resistant prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2012; 104: 273-279.
188. Attard G, Reid AH, Yap TA et al. Phase I clinical trial of a selective inhibitor of CYP17, abiraterone acetate, confirms that castration-resistant prostate cancer commonly remains hormone driven. J Clin Oncol 2008; 26: 4563-4571.
189. Ryan CJ, Smith MR, Fong L et al. Phase I clinical trial of the CYP17 inhibitor abiraterone acetate demonstrating clinical activity in patients with castrationresistant prostate cancer who received prior ketoconazole therapy. J Clin Oncol 2010; 28: 1481-1488.
190. Ryan CJ, Shah S, Efstathiou E et al. Phase II study of abiraterone acetate in chemotherapy-naive metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer displaying bone flare discordant with serologic response. Clin Cancer Res 2011; 17: 4854-4861.
191. Thuret R, Massard C, Gross-Goupil M et al. The postchemotherapy PSA surge syndrome. Ann Oncol 2008; 19: 1308-1311.
192. de Bono JS, Oudard S, Ozguroglu M et al. Prednisone plus cabazitaxel or mitoxantrone for metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer progressing after docetaxel treatment: a randomised open-label trial. Lancet 2010; 376: 1147-1154.
193. de Bono JS, Logothetis CJ, Molina A et al. Abiraterone and increased survival in metastatic prostate cancer. N Engl J Med 2011; 364: 1995-2005.
194. Parker C, Heinrich D, O'Sullivan JMS et al. Overall survival benefit of radium-223 chloride (Alpharadin™) in the treatment of patients with symptomatic bone metastases in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC): a phase III randomized trial (ALSYMPCA). Eur J Cancer 2011; 47(Suppl 2): p3.
195. Scher HI, Fizazi K, Saad F et al, AFFIRM Investigators. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 2012; 367(13): 1187-1197.
196. Loriot Y, Massard C, Gross-Goupil M et al. The interval from the last cycle of docetaxel-based chemotherapy to progression is associated with the efficacy of subsequent docetaxel in patients with prostate cancer. Eur J Cancer 2010; 46: 1770-1772.
197. Eymard JC, Oudard S, Gravis G et al. Docetaxel reintroduction in patients with metastatic castration-resistant docetaxel-sensitive prostate cancer: a retrospective multicentre study. BJU Int 2010; 106: 974-978.
198. Beer TM, Ryan CW, Venner PM et al. Intermittent chemotherapy in patients with metastatic androgen-independent prostate cancer: results from ASCENT, a double-blinded, randomized comparison of high-dose calcitriol plus docetaxel with placebo plus docetaxel. Cancer 2008; 112: 326-330.
199. Berthold DR, Pond GR, de Wit R et al. Survival and PSA response of patients in the TAX 327 study who crossed over to receive docetaxel after mitoxantrone or vice versa. Ann Oncol 2008; 19: 1749-1753.
200. Saad F, Gleason DM, Murray R et al. Long-term efficacy of zoledronic acid for the prevention of skeletal complications in patients with metastatic hormonerefractory prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 2004; 96: 879-882.
201. Fizazi K, Carducci M, Smith M et al. Denosumab versus zoledronic acid for treatment of bone metastases in men with castration-resistant prostate cancer: a randomised, double-blind study. Lancet 2011; 377: 813-822.
202. Fizazi K, Lipton A, Mariette X et al. Randomized phase II trial of denosumab in patients with bone metastases from prostate cancer, breast cancer, or other neoplasms after intravenous bisphosphonates. J Clin Oncol 2009; 27: 1564-1571.